

















<v-, 















"6 V 









^O 







































6* 

































o V 












**■ <** _o v 


















v-s 



>*.«< 












^o* 















\* 



























<J- ' 
















































■ 


































































<. 






•tt. 


































"W 



* A 6* *o *" 



l]o 


















' n?> 



o 















°^ 







J. ** 



^ 



,4^ 






■^ 



V 

5k- *^ ** *i "^ 



■* ^ v 



























v^ 







1 S? 


















o *■ 

o « 










°o 



^.' «* °* 






^4. 



v/ : 



•v 



* A 









& 









<?• 



v^ y 



•*■ 









V 










J V c 



O.^ 



^ ^ 

/' 







A Laboratory Guide & Note Book 

For Use in the Study of 

Food Preparation 

For High School Classes 



in 



Domestic Science 



By BETH WARNER MULL 



DOMESTIC SCIENCE PUBLISHING CO. 
TOPEKA, KANSAS 



A Laboratory Manual & Note Book 

For Use in the Study of 

Food Preparation 

For High School Classes 



in 



Domestic Science 



By BETH WARNER MULL 

Formerly Professor of Home Economics, Kansas State 
Normal College at Emporia 

Instructor in Home Economics, Extension Division 

Oklahoma Agricultural and Mechanical 

College 



DOMESTIC SCIENCE PUBLISHING CO. 
TOPEKA, KANSAS 



TY 663 






Copyright, 1914 
By Beth Warner Mull 



NOV 27 191* 
©CIA388658 



Jforetoorfc. 



The material in this note book has been suggested through several years of 
experience in teaching and supervising secondary Domestic Science and has been 
evolved out of the apparent need on the part of most teachers of the subject for notes, in 
the hands of the students, by which they may proceed with the daily laboratory work 
without the necessity of dictation or black board preparation, by the teacher, of the 
data for the day's work. In this way much time of both teacher and pupil can be 
spared for other and more effective efforts. There are no experiments in the note book 
that have not been tried out in both upper grade and high school classes and found to 
be within the scope, understanding and ability of the average girl to perform and 
apply. 

Originality is not claimed by the author for the data, which is common scien- 
tific knowledge, nor for the method of presenting it, which is the form used by all 
teachers who lead students through individual experience to definite conclusions and 
their application to the practical things of life; but having felt in her own secondary 
classes the great loss of time on the part of both teacher and pupil, by employing the 
dictation and black board method of giving out data, as well as the greater need for more 
permanent and carefully arranged records of the laboratory work, she has been led to 
offer this note book to the busy Domestic Science teacher with the hope that she may 
find it rock in a weary land. 

Students in practically all other sciences have printed data for their labora- 
tory guidance and the thought in the arrangement of the experiments herein has been 
not only to give the data for the day's experiments but also to furnish a note book 
of such form and proportion as to enable the student to transfer, at the close of the les- 
son, her notes on the experiments of the day, from her temporary note book to the blank 
portions of this book, and thus have in her possession at the time when all experiments 
have been performed, a complete and permanent record of her work, arranged in form 
and useable. 

June, 1914. THE AUTHOR. 



Suggestions to Teachers. 

Only enough recipes have been given in the practical application of each experi- 
ment to illustrate the possibilities of discoveries made. It is left to the teacher to 
determine whether or not further elaboration is desirable and to choose such illus- 
tration from any of the several good books of recipes in circulation. The class should 
always discuss such recipes, determining whether the proportions and methods of 
manipulation of materials suggested, coincide with their own conclusions drawn from 
their experimentation, and if not, re-organize the material according to the principle in- 
volved. 

Blank pages have been supplied to furnish space for additional notes on any 
experiment or for the addition of other illustrative recipes. 

The order of the work, as given, may not accord with the curriculum of all 
schools, but there is no reason why the teacher may not use the experiments under 
any one of the general heads in the order which seems best to meet the conditions of 
her class; for example, using the experiments on Carbohydrate before those on Pro- 
teins if she so desires. 

It is suggested that, after the first general experiments have been completed, 
the subject of Food Preservation may be taken up at any time during the year that the 
teacher deem wisest in her community. It may logically follow the lessons on fruit 
under the general subject of Water, and be introduced in September or early October 
when fall fruits are in market; or it may be deferred until the spring of the year and 
be introduced as a subject by itself, when spring berries and asparagus and green peas 
are on the market for use in the experiments. 

Reference Material. 

It will readily be observed that much more reference material than has been 
listed might be suggested upon every subject, but the author has endeavored to con- 
sider the time which the girl of the secondary school may have for reading references 
as well as to refer her to a source of informa icn which is authorative and inexpensive, in 
the form of the Bulletins published by the United States Department of Agriculture. 
Most of these may be had for the asking. The teacher is left free to add any other 
references which she has accessible, and which seem consistent with the needs of her 
particular school or class. 

There should be on the shelves, for class use, several copies of Bulletin No. 28 
from the U. S. Department of Agriculture which gives "The Chemical Composition of 
American Food Materials" according to the analyses made by W. 0. Atwater. 

The class should also have the use of the charts by Dr. C. F. Langworthy of 
U. S. Department of Agriculture, giving colored illustrations of the chemical composition 
of standard food materials. There arc- fifteen of these charts and the set may be ob- 
tained for one dollar by addressing the Bureau of Publications, Dept. of Agriculture. 
Washington, D. C. These are printed on heavy paper and when received they should 
be mounted with paste upon muslin, to prevent their tearing during handling; a 
round or half round of wood should be fastened to the top and bottom, a screw hook be- 
ing inserted in the top round in order that the chart may be easily suspended from a 
nail, or cord, for use in the classroom. 

There should be, ready for the students use, in the school library, a file of all 
bulletins pertaining to food materials, published by the U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. A 
printed list of all available bulletins on the subject may be obtained by addressing the 
Division of Publications of that department. 

Exhibits of food products and manufacturing processes may be obtained from 
many firms producing food materials for the market. These prove interesting illus- 
trative material. 

Following is a list of additional reference books: 

Fuels of the Household — Marian White, Whitcomb & Barrows, Boston 

Chemistry of Cooking and Cleaning — Richards & Elliot, Whitcomb & Barrows, Boston 

Drinking Water and Ice supplies — T. M. Prudden, Whitcomb & Barrows, Boston 



Dust and Its Dangers — T. M. Prudden, Whitcomb & Barrows, Boston 
The Story of The Bacteria— T. M. Prudden, Whitcomb & Barrows, Boston 
Bacteria Yeasts and Molds in the Home — H. W. Conn, Whitcomb & Barrows, Boston 
The Story of Germ Life — H. W. Conn, Whitcomb & Barrows, Boston 
Household Bacteriology — Buchanan, Whitcomb & Barrows, Boston 
Human Poods — Harry Snyder, Whitcomb & Barrows, Boston 

Food Mf.ter:a's and Their Adulterants — Ellen Richards, Whitcomb & Barrows, Boston 
Geographical Series — Carpenter, Ginn & Co., Boston 

Food Products of the World — Mary E. Green, Whitcomb & Barrows, Boston 
Foods and Household Management — Kinne & Cooley, 'McMillian Co., Chicago 
Chemistry of Food and Nutrition — H. C. Sherman, McMillan Co., Chicago 
Laboratory Handbook for Dietetics — Mary Swartz Rose, McMillan & Co., Chicago 
Principles of Human Nutrition — W. H. Jordan, Whitcomb & Barrows, Boston 
The Story of the Living Machine — H. W. Conn, Whitcomb & Barrows, Boston 
Food and Principles of Dietetics— Robt. Hutchinson, Whitcomb & Barrows, Boston 
A Text Book of Dietetics — Thompson, D. Appleton & Co, New York 
Instinct and Health — Woods Hutchinson 

Articles on Pure Food and Food Adulteration — H. W. Wiley, Good Housekeeping Magazine since Jan- 
uary 1913 
The Human Mechanism — Hough & Sedgwick, Whitcomb & Barrows, Boston 
Several Standard Texts in Physiology 

Principles of Organic Chemistry — J. F. Norris, Whitcomb & Barrows, Boston 
Sanitary and Applied Chemistry — E. H, S. Bailey, Whitcomb & Barrows, Boston 
Chemistry and Its Relation to Daily Life — L. Kahlenbarg and Edwin Hart, McMillan & Co., Chicago. 
Several Standard Text in General and Organic Chemistry 
Household Physics — Alfred M. Butler, Whitcomb & Barrows Boston 
Any Standard Texts in Physics 
Any Standard Texts in Botany 
Any Standard 'Texts in Biology 
Any Standard Texts in Zoology 

The Boston Cooking School Cook Book — Fannie M. Fanner, Whitcomb & Barrows, Boston 
Practical Cooking and Serving — Janet M. Hill, Whitcomb & Barrows, Boston 
Home Science Cook Book — Lincoln & Barrows, Whitcomb & Barrows, Boston 
A Cook Book for Nurses — Sarah C. Hill, Whitcomb & Barrows, Boston 
The Up-to Date Waitress — Janet M. Hill, Whitcomb & Barrows, Boston 
The Expert Waitress — Anne F. Springsteed, Whitcomb & Barrows, Boston 
The New Hostess of Today — Linda H. Lamed, Whitcomb & Barrows, Boston 
Library of Home Economics (12 Volumes) — American School of Home Economics, Chicago 



Equipment 

Most laboratories for the teaching of domestic science, are quite completely- 
equipped with stoves and cooking utensils with which equipment the mere prepar- 
ation of food can be carried on quite effectively, but there is a most apparent 
lack in most laboratories of that sort of equipment with which a study of foods may be 
made in such way that the student may be sent out from the class room with a working 
knowledge of food composition, characteristics and the basic principles upon which the 
preparation of food hinges. 

It is not enough that the high school girl should acquire the mere manual art 
of manipulating materials, she should learn the why of her manipulation through a per- 
sonal experience with cause and effect. To this end it is suggested that a limited equip- 
ment of simple scientific apparatus and chemical supplies be added to the laboratory 
essentials. Following is a list of suggested materials — these may be obtained from the 
equipment of the school botany and chemistry departments; may be ordered with per- 
haps less cost at the time supplies are ordered for those laboratories ; or may be ordered 
directly from some house which furnishes scientific supplies as, 

E. H. Sargent & Co., Chicago, 111. 

Central Scientific Co., Chicago, 111. 

Scientific Material Co., Chicago, 111. 

Wallenberg & Schaar, Chicago, 111. 

Henry Heil & Co., St. Louis,, Mo. 

List of Supplies. 

Chemicals: In glass stoppered bottles. 

Sulphuric Acid, Concentrated. 

Sulphuric Acid, Dilute. 

Hydrochloric Acid, Concentrated 

Hydrochloric Acid, Dilute. 

Nitric Acid, Concentrated. 

Oxalic Acid, Crystals. 

Amonium Hydroxide. 

Potassum Hydroxide. 
BulK Supplies, 

Sodium Bicarbonate, (Baking 
Soda) 

Sodium Carbonate, (Sal Soda). 
Apparatus: For general use in the laboratory. 

2 Microscopes, compound lenses. 4 Erlenmeyer Flasks, 

4 Pairs of Metric Balances. 

2 Pairs of Avoirdupois Balances. 

4 Spirit lamps, capacity 2 oz. 

4 Tripods with iron rings. 

4 Wire gauze mats. 

4 Pipe Stem triangles. 

4 Florence Flasks, 500 cc. 
4 Florence Flasks, 1000 cc. 

Additional: For desks of individual pupils or at least one for two pupils: 



Lead Acetate. 
Tincture of Iodine. 
Fehling's Solution. 
Cooper Sulphate. 
Potassium Hydroxide. 
Alcohol, Ethyl (Fruit Sugar). 
Alcohol, Methyl (Wood). 
Alcohol, Denatured (for fuel). 

Paraffine. 
Kerosene. 



6 oz. 

Erlenmeyer Flasks, 12 oz. 
1 Erlenmeyer Flask with side delivery tube 

12 oz. 
4 Nests of Glass Beakers. 
4 Petri Dishes. 
Microscope slides. 
Microscope cover glasses. 



1 Bottle litmus paper, blue. 1 

1 Bottle litmus paper, pink. 2 

1 Package of filter paper. 3 

1 Porcelain evaporating dish. 3 

1 Porcelain crucible. 2 

1 Triangular file. 2 

2 Test tube holders. 2 
1 Steel forceps.. 4 
1 Test Tube rack. 1 

1 Test Tube brush. 1 
6 Test Tubes, 50 cc. 1 

2 Glass funnels. 



Thistle tube. 

Glass stirring rods, (8in. long). 

ft. Glass tubing. 

ft. Rubber tubing. 

Rubber stoppers, solid. 

Rubber stoppers, one hole. 

Rubber stoppers, two holes. 

Corks. 

Chemical Thermometer, °F. 640 

Chemical Thermometer, °C 360 

one quart glazed earthen jar. 



FIRST LESSON 

I. Examination of Equipment 

The pupil should look at the equipment, learn the names of all apparatus and 
make an inventory for the note book. 



II. General Instructions for Pupils. 

Personal Equipment. 

(a) Clothing. 

Apron 

Pattern 

Material 

Kind 

Instructions for making 



Half Sleeves 

Pattern 

Material (same as apron 

Instructions 



Hand Towels 
Size 

Material 
Kind. 
Quantity- 
How fastened to apron 



Holders 

Size 

Material 

Kind. 

Quantity 
Instructions 



Dress. 

It is always nicest to wear wash dresses of cotton or linen material when en- 
gaged in any kind of housework for these materials are made of smooth, closely 
twisted threads to which dust and other forms of dirt do not readily adhere, as they do 
to the looser weaves and more porous threads of woolen materials ; and besides, when 
these materials come to the wash they are more easily handled and come out of the 
wash in a condition as fresh and beautiful as before. So that a girl engaged in cooking 
or any housework may always be neat and attractive if she has a change of two or three 
simply made, calico dresses and several aprons. There is no prettier sight than a 
girl in a fresh, clean simple dress and apron, preparing a dish for the table. 

In preparing for school cooking lessons, it is advised that the pupil wear wash 
dresses and it is insisted that she be provided with a clean apron and if her dress have 
long sleeves, these must be protected by half sleeves made in the simplest manner — 
elbow length — just like the lower half of a plain coat sleeve — hemmed at the hand 
and the top and fastened into place, when worn, by means of a pin 

(b) Note-books. 

All pupils, whether at work in the class room or taking observations, should be 
provided with a good note-book, in which the leaves are fastened, and in which all data is 
recorded at the time of observation. 

2. Rules to be observed in the Laboratory. 

Do not bring hats or wraps to the laboratory. 

Before beginning work, you should see to it that your hair is so arranged as 
not to need attention or brushing back from the eyes, while the hands are dealing with 
food materials. 

Wash the hands thoroughly before beginning work and see to it that finger 
nails are clean. 

Purses, note-books and other books should not be laid on the laboratory table. 

Keep your handkerchief in your apron pocket. Do not lay it on the laboratory 
table. 

At all times during the lesson, keep your utensils and supplies in orderly ar- 
rangement and your table clean. 

Put all utensils to which food materials have adhered to soak as soon as empty. 

10 



Soak utensils having contained egg or milk in cold water. To milk vessels 
add a small quanity of soda. 

All material dropped or spilled on floor or table must be cleaned up by the pu- 
pils who spilled it as soon as possible and before leaving the laboratory. 

See that all utensils are clean, dryand placed in their proper location before 
you leave your work. 

The stove must be left perfectly clean. 

Dish towels and cloths, must be washed, scalded and hung in neat arrangement 
at the close of the lesson. 

The room should be left in perfect order by the pupils at the close of each 
lesson. 

Before beginning to put materials together, all utensils and materials should 
be collected and measured ready for use at the laboratory table. 

All materials 6hould be carefully measured before using. 

Flour should be sifted before measuring, and not packed down in the measure. 

All measures should be leveled off by the use of a straight knife edge or spatu- 
la. 

Use as few utensils as possible and thus save extra work of washing. 

Think your work through, list materials and utensils required and plan how 
you expect to proceed, before beginning. Time will thus be saved. 

Talking to each other about subjects apart from the lesson often causes incor- 
rect measurements and loss of time because of distraction of thought. 

RULES FOR HOUSEKEEPERS. 

Note. In most classes in Domestic Science there are two girls appointed for a term of one week, or 
one month, who share the duties of attending to the general comfort and well being of the class by 
ventilatimg the room and keeping the room, supply table, and cupboard tidy and in order. The duties 
listed may be divided between the girls as they or the teacher may choose. 

Look after the general comfort by attending to the ventilation, opening or clos- 
ing windows, and adjusting blinds for proper lighting. 

Get out all general untensils and supplies needed for the lesson. 
Light the fire in the stove and attend to the heat regulation as necessary. 
Attend to water supply. 

Fill teakettles, and keep supply of hot water on hand. 

Watch the supply table and cupboards and see that they are kept in order and 
left in order by pupils getting supplies. 
At the close of the lesson, see: 

That all desks have been left clean and in order. 

That dish towels have been properly washed and hung to dry. 

That all supplies have been put away in their proper receptacles and 

places. 
That all general utensils are clean,dry and in their proper places. 
That the floor is free from scraps and properly brushed. 
That the sinks are clean. 
That the fire has been made safe for leaving — if gas, electricity, 

alcohol, gasoline or coal oil, see that all burners have been carefully 
turned off. 
That windows are closed and blinds adjusted. 
That the room is generally in perfect order. 

Rules for Dish Washing. 

Note. A few cleansing supplies should be kept upon a shelf above the sink or work table, the bot- 
tles being carefully labeled. A list of useful materials follows: 

Sal Soda — Carbonate of soda-Na 2 Co 3 
Baking Soda — Bi-Carbonate of soda-NaHCo, 
Ammonia — NH 4 OH 

Vinegar — containing acetic acid-C 2 H 4 O. 
Muriatic acid — (Hydrochloric acid) HCL 

11 



Oxalic Acid— (Co„H) 2 or aH.Cv 

Kerosene 

Sapolio, or Dutch Cleanser 1 

and 'with corks for scouring purposes. 

Brick or fine sand J 

Sal Soda, baking soda, ammonia are alkalis, with different degrees of mild- 
ness are used for "breaking" hard water. 

The acids act upon various mineral deposits and stains which accumulate upon 
utensils. 

Where the utensil is procelain or metal and itself affected by the action of 
the acid, sometimes the stains and deposits can be removed by the softening action 
of kerosene. It is best to use it for cleansing of sinks, bath tubs, etc. 

Rules. 

Dishes should be sorted and arranged for washing before beginning. All dish- 
es with scraps of food adhering should be scraped before sorting and piling. 

Do not use a knife for scraping dishes, it injures both dish and knife and cre- 
ates undue noise. Small rubber dish scrap ers may be obtained at hardware stores at 
10c each. Or a piece of paper or bread crust may be used for shoving the food off into 
the scrap pan. 

Dishes to which fat adheres should be wiped thoroughly with soft paper and 
the paper made use of for kindling. 

Dishes to which any quantity of food adheres should be rinsed, in a pan of 
water prepared for the purpose while sorting and stacking. 

Dishes to which milk or egg adheres should always be rinsed in cold water be- 
fore washing. Hard water hardens these m i terials and makes them difficult to remove 
from the surface of the dish. 

When all dishes, silver, cutlery and cooking utensils have been sorted and ar- 
ranged ready for washing, take two dish pans half full of hot water, make a suds in one 
pan, if the water is hard add to the water 1 tablespoonful of sal soda before using the 
soap. By the side of the pan of clear water, place a drain pan. 

Have a perfectly clean dish cloth. Dish cloths should be thoroughly washed, 
in suds, scalded by boiling, and hung to dry, in the sun, after each dish washing. Have 
fresh, clean, dry towels for drying dishes. It is well to have a separate towels for 
glass ware, another for silver and china, and one for drying pans, etc. 

Order for Dishwashing: 6. Steel and cutlery 

With the cleanser rinse water wash tables, 
sink, dish pans and rinse with fresh, 
hot water. 
Brush off and wipe stove 
Wash and scald dish cloths and dish 
towels. 

Special Care of Glassware 

Strong alkalis dim glassware, therefore it is not best to wash glassware in 
water to which has been added lye, or any great quantity of sal soda, or other washing 
powder. If the hard water must be "broken," washing ammonia is the mildest of the 
materials used for the purpose. 

Glassware dries much more readily and takes a higher polish if washed in hot 
water. Wipe with a dry cloth which does not scatter lint. The newest linen tea towel 
will be best for the glassware. 

Glassware which has been stained brown by iron deposits may be cleansed by 
a few drops of either hydrochloric or oxalic acid. 

If white spots or rings of lime or other minerals adhere to the glass, they 
also may be removed usually by the use of hydrochloric acid. 

It is not well to pour this acid into your sink as it will injure the porcelain 
glaze, and the pipes. 



12 



r 


Dishwashing: 




6. 
7. 

8. 
9. 
nite 


1. 

2. 

3. 
4. 
5. 


Glassware 

Silver 

China 

Woodware 

Tinware, aluminum and 


gra 



Alcohol is a good cleanser of glass, particularly advantageous to use on chased 
and cut glass — as it goes into the crevices and removes grease. A soft brush should be 
kept for washing all cut and chased glass. 

Pieces of cut glass should never be set into each other without a pad of cloth 
or tissue paper between, as the sharp edges scratch the surface of the other piece and 
mar its beauty. 

\ Special Care of Silver. 

To keep silver in good condition, observe the following rules : 

Don't scrape plates with silver pieces. 

Don't throw spoons, forks, knives, all together into a dish, or dishpan or when 
wiping. The points and edges scratch the surface of the other pieces. 

Keep the pieces separate as much as possible in gathering, washing, rinsing, 
drying and storing. 

It is well to have a tray upon which the silver is laid out piece by piece. If 
the tray is covered with a dish towel, both noise and scratching of the silver are pre- 
vented. 

Silver blackens by being left standing with food adhering to it. Sulphur is the 
material in foods which most quickly blackens the silver. Note the effect of egg, par- 
ticularly egg white, upon a silver fork or spoon. 

Wash silver in hot suds, using a soft brush for cleansing chased work, and on 
discolored spots use baking soda ; rinse in hot water and dry thoroughly. One of the 
best cleansers for silver is ordinary baking soda. 

Some silver polishes contain materials that scratch the surface of the silver, 
or coat it over with an undesirable material. 

If whiting is used for polishing silver, moisten the whiting with water, or 
better still with alcohol or ammonia, then with a soft cloth or brush apply the moist whit- 
ing to the silver by brisk rubbing, and then wash and rinse as usual. 

Polishing of silver is usually a slow process. 

The following method will save much work: 

Take a broad, deep pan large enough to hold all the silver. Place in the bottom 
of the pan a wire rack to hold the silver up from contact with the bottom of the pan; 
pile all the silver loosely on the rack ; cover it with hot water and to the water add, for 
every gallon of water 2 level tablespoonsf ul of table salt and the same quantity of baking 
soda; drop a scrap or two of zinc into the water and let it approach the boiling point, 
standing for 15 or 20 minutes. Then remove the silver and wash it as usual. It will 
all be clean and bright. 

Special Care of Other Utensils. 
Wooden ware: 

Wooden utensils should be thoroughly rinsed off in clear, cool or cold water; 
scoured by rubbing the cloth or brush with the grain of the wood ; rinsed quickly with 
scalding water and dried slowly. 

Do not dry wooden ware near a hot stove ; neither store it away in a cupboard 
while it is in a moist condition — leave it out in the air to dry. 

Tin ware: 

Tinware should not be scraped. If food has scorched fast to it, fill the uten- 
sil with water, add a tablespoonful of sal soda and let the mixture cook in the vessel for 
from fifteen to thirty minutes, after which time, the scorched material will be loose and 
can be lifted off by a spatula or flexible knife blade. 

Any black or smoked place can be cleansed first by wiping with paper, then 
by the use of moist Sapolio or Bon Ami applied with a cork. 

To prevent rusting, tin ware should be dried with a perfectly dry towel. Do not 
stand tin on a hot stove to dry. The heat blackens it. 

Granite : 

Treat granite ware just as you do porcelain dishes. Avoid dropping it for 
this cracks the enamel. When materials have scorched fast to granite ware or it is 
stained, it may be cleansed as described un der the heading "Tin ware," by cooking it in 
soda water. 

13 



Aluminum ware: 

Usually when aluminum ware is purchased, a printed card accompanies the 
utensil giving directions for its care. 

Unlike the utensils previously described, alkalis are injurious to aluminum) — 
and if you cook an aluminum utensil to which materials have scorched fast, in soda 
water it will come out a very rough utensil indeed. On the contrary, acids do not affect 
alumnium, that is, do not act upon or combine with the metal, hence it may be cleansed 
by means of acids. 

One will often observe that an aluminum utensil which has been discolored or 
blackened by the mineral elements in vegetables cooked in it, will become perfectly 
white and clean if tomatoes, gooseberries or rhubarb happen to be cooked in it. It is the 
organic acids, citric acid, and oxalic acid in these fruits which cleanses the kettle, of 
course disolving the staining material into the fruit so cooked. However, this obser- 
vation furnishes us a lesson as to how to deal with the utensil in cleaning it, and we 
conclude that aluminum, like glass, should not be washed in water containing alkalis, 
or with strong soaps; that it can be cleansed by washing with, or cooking it in water 
containing oxalic acid. 

Steel and cutlery: 

Steel kettles and skillets should be thoroughly washed in clean soap suds and 
scoured inside and out, by the use of sapolio or brick or sand, directly applied, then rinsed 
in clear hot water and dried. There is little excuse for "pots and kettles" black on the 
outside and capable of soiling water they touch. 

Steel knives and forks should be treated in the same manner as the afore- 
mentioned steel utensils and scoured to brightness at the time of washing. 

Special Care of Milk Vessels 

All milk vessels and bottles should be absolutely free from crevices, rough 
places, seams and sharp corners. All corners should be curved to avoid places for lodge- 
ment of delecterious material, such utensils in the form of milk cans, pails, and bottles 
can now be obtained on the market and should be owned by all persons desirous of giv- 
ing milk proper care. 

The protein substances in milk harden with heat, and therefore when a utensil 
which has contained milk is put immediately into hot water this material is cooked fast 
to the bottle and is difficult thereafter to dislodge. We have all seen the baby's bottle 
that the mother was vainly attempting to clean with shot! 

When the utensil is emptied of the milk it should be filled immediately with 
cold water to which is added baking soda — 1 teaspoonful to the pint, — and let stand un- 
til ready for washing. When that time comes, rinse the bottle thoroughly with the soda 
water, then wash in warm soap suds, scald with boiling water, and turn it on its side 
or, better still, turn it upside down in a rack to dry. Do not wipe it with a dish cloth, 
or rinse it with cold water just before using. The fresh milk would be safer if it even 
went into a hot utensil which had just been scalded with boiling water (or sterilized by 
20 minutes of boiling) than it could possibly be put into a cold utensil in which cold water 
had just been dashed about, or which had been dried by a dish towel. However, milk 
vessels may be cooled after sterilization before using. 

Even greater care than that indicated here must be taken with the milk and 
utensils for infant feeding, but such care probably belongs to another discussion. 

Special Care of Refrigerators 

Refrigerators should be stone or porcelain or enamelware lined, without crev- 
ices for the lodgement of filth and bacteria, and with shelves and all interior arrange- 
ments removable. Refrigerators with wooden lining or wooden shelves are damp breed- 
ing places for bacteria and foul odors, and are worse than nothing for food protection. 
Zinc linings corrode and thus accumulate rough places for lodgement of dangerous sub- 
stances and bacteria. 

The refrigerator should be kept immaculately clean. All deteriorated food 
should be daily removed. Vegetables and other food materials should not be allowed 
to lie directly on the ice, their odors and decomposition products being carried by the 
circulation of the air in the refrigerator to other food materials. 

14 



At least once a week all materials and removable portions of the refrigerator 
should be taken out; the interior thoroughly washed with hot soda water; all removed 
portions should be so washed and scalded; the drain pipe should be thoroughly 
cleansed by removing it and washing the interior with hot soda water introduced by 
means of a long brush or swab. After washing, scalding, and airing the refrigerator, the 
ice and good food materials may be returned and the refrigerator closed. This proced- 
ure may cost something in ice — a cent or two — but to neglect it may cost dollars in 
doctor's bills. 

Special Care of Sinks and Drains 

A somewhat fine strainer should be used over the sink drain in order that por- 
tions of insoluble material may not find their way into the drain pipes. Such materials 
as stems, matches, coffee grounds clog up the traps. 

Sinks should be set with pipes exposed so that if a trap becomes clogged it 
may be readily accessible, and may be opened and cleansed. Avoid pouring greasy water 
down sink pipes; the grease collects on the pipe walls, clogging up the passage and 
affording breeding places for bacteria, resulting in disagreeable odors. 

After washing out the sink, plenty of hot soap suds should be poured down the 
pipes, and later clean hot water should be poured through, in large enough quantities 
to thoroughly wash out the pipes. 

A simple rubber suction pump should be a part of the household furnishing 
for forcing open clogged pipes. This article will pay for itself when it has saved one 
trip of a plumber to the house. 

Special Care of Dish Cloths 

In all our household problems we are dealing with the problems of preventing 
bacteria from finding their way into our food stuffs and digestive tracts. It is the action 
of bacteria only which causes food material to ferment, mould, sour, decay and many of 
our cooking, baking, canning, and preserving processes are for the purpose of making 
food "keep" which means destroying bacteria which would prevent food from keeping. 
Besides bacteria which prevent food stuffs from keeping, we must also deal with bacteria 
which cause disease and hence we are making constant effort to rid our homes of these 
by sunning, washing, scalding, fumigating, our houses and clothing and by cooking, Pas- 
teurizing, or sterilizing foods. 

There is no greater agent for the dissemination of bacteria than the dish 
cloth and dish towel of the kitchen. When a dish cloth "smells sour," it means that 
bacterial processes are at work there in the moist material feeding upon the fragments 
of food and grease clinging to the dish towel or cloth. 

Dish towels and cloths should be clean. They should be scalded in hot suds or 
soda water after each dish washing, rinsed, and hung up in the sun to dry thoroughly. 
Sunshine is the most potent enemy of bacteria. 

Dish towels should not be used, one time after another, without washing and 
scalding and sunning. A dish may be perfectly clean when it has been washed in clean 
hot suds and scalded with boiling water, and may then very quickly be made a menace 
to food and health by wiping it on an unsanitary dish towel in which bacteria have been 
breeding since the towel was last used. 

Besides the slogan "Swat the fly," we need another, "Boil the dish cloth." We 
do too much dish wiping. Probably we do like to polish our glassware and silver, and 
and the tinware must be dried by some means to prevent its rusting, but most of our 
dishes and utensils might be turned on edge in a drain pan or wire rack after washing, 
scalded with clean hot water, and left to drain dry. They would be much cleaner if 
so treated. 



15 



SECOND LESSON. 
THE BODY AND ITS FOODS. 



Elements. 

1. Definition — An element is the simplest substance into which a material 
can be divided. 

2. Discussion — In all Nature, meai 
the vegetables, the animals which comprise 
simple elements which in varying mixtures 
tude of substances and things we know. S( 
sten, have been discovered in very recent y< 
sometime be found. You will find that yoi 
names, and quite familiar with a few of the 
follows : 



ming earth and sea and air, in the minerals, 
our world, there are about seventy-eight 
and combinations go to make up the multi- 
>ome of these, argon, helium, radium, tung- 
' ears, so it is barely possible that others may 
»u are somewhat familiar with some of these 
ie substances, in the list of elements which 



Aluminum 

Antimony 

Argon 

Arsenic 

Barium 

Bismuth 

Boron 

Bromine 

Cadmium 

Cassium 

Calcium 

Carbon 

Cerium 

Chlorine 

Chromium 

Cobalt 



List of Elements. 

Columbium 

Copper 

Erbium 

Fluorine 

Gadolinium 

Gallium 

Germanium 

Glucinum 

Gold 

Helium 

Hydrogen 

Indium 

Iodine 

Iridium 

Iron 

Krypton 



Lanthanum 

Lead 

Lithium 

Magnesium 

Manganese 

Mercury 

Molybdenum 

Neoymium 

Neon 

Nitrogen 

Nickel 

Osmium 

Oxygen 

Palladium 

Phosphorus 

Platinum 



Potassium 

Praseodymium 

Radium 

Rhodium 

Rubidium 

Ruthenium 

Samarium 

Scandium 

Selenium 

Silicon 

Silver 

Silver 

Sodium 

Strontium 

Sulphur 

Tantalum 



Tellurium 

Terbium 

Thallium 

Thorium 

Thulium 

Tin 

Titanium 

Tungsten 

Uranium 

Yandadium 

Xenon 

Ytterbium 

Yttrium 

Zirconium 

Zinc 



Of the above elements, fifteen enter into the composition of the human body. 
These elements are as follows: 



Oxygen 

Hydrogen 

Carbon 

Nitrogen 



Sulphur 
Phosphorus 
Calcium or lime 
Iron 



Sodium 
Potassium 
Magnesium 
Silicon 



Chlorine 
Iodine 

Fluorine j 



Minute quantities 



Food and Food Nutrients 



1. Definition — (a) Food is any material which when taken into the body will 
build and repair tissue or give heat and other forms of energy, (b) A nutrient is that 
constituent of a foodstuff which will perform any of these functions. 

2. Discussion — In our daily food supply, we should obtain sufficient of both 
building and fuel material to maintain the body at its highest standard of weight, 
efficiency and appearance. In other words, our daily meals should contain the food 
nutrients in sufficient quantity and proper proportions. 

Classifications: 



There are five food nutrients: 



A — Building Material 



Water 

Mineral 

Protein 



B — Fuel Material 



f3. Protein 
4. Fat 
(5. Carbohydrates 



16 



These nutrients are also classified in the following manner: 
I. Inorganic II 

1. Water 

2. Mineral 



Organic 

a. Nitrogenous 

3. Protein 
Non-nitrogenous 

4. Fats 

5. Carbohydrates 



b. 



The elements comprising each nutrient are as follows: 

1. Water is composed ofhydrogen and oxygen. 

2. Mineral matter. The minerals of the body are calcium, iron, sodium, po- 
tassium, magnesium in combination with sulphur, phosphorus, silicon or 
chlorine, fluerine and iodine. 

3. Protein is composed of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen and al- 
ways contain some sulphur and usually some phosphorus. 

4. Fats are made up of carbon, hydrogen and some oxygen. 

5. Carbohydrates are made up of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen — the oxygen 
being in a greater proportion than found in the fats. 

Nitrogen enters into the structure of every living cell hence protein, the only 
food principle containing nitrogen is essentially a buildng material. 

Elements are usually referred to by chemical signs — or abbreviations. 

Following are the signatures for body elements: 

C=Carbon Na= Sodium S=Sulphur I=Iodine 

H=Hydrogen K=Potassium P=Phosphorus =Fluorine 

0=Oxygen 
N=Nitrogen 

The uses of these elements and food materials in the body are shown in the 
following outline: ; 

Nutrient Composition Uses in Body Remarks 



Na= Sodium 
K=Potassium 
Si=Silicon 
Cl=Chlorine 



S=Sulphur 
P=Phosphorus 
Ca=Lime (calcium) 
Fe=Iron 



— ■ 

s 

a 



3 



Water 



Mineral 



H + O 



Ca, S, P, 

Fe, Na, K, 
Mg, Si, CI. 



Protein 
H+O- 



Enters into the structure of 
every cell and the circulation. 

Build bone, teeth, and form part 
of the structure of every cell, 
furnish coloring material, red 
blood corpuscles, furnish alkaline 
and acid and neutral conditions 
of digestive juices and are essen- 
tial in all digestive, assimila- 
tive and circulatory processes 

Build muscle tissue, and is essen- 
-C+N+S+P tial in all cell structure, and may 
serve as fuel, producing heat and 
energy. 



The body is over 
2-3 or 66 per 
cent water. 

The body is 
about 4 per 
cent mineral 
matter 



The body varies 
in protein 
material as to 
whether muscu- 
lar or not 



17 



C3 

■c 

a 



PQ 



Nutrient Composition 



Use 



Remarks 



Protein 
Fat 



See above 
C+H+O 



Carbohydrate 

C+H-fO 



To be burned in the body, pro- 
ducing heat and other forms of 
energy. 

To be burned in the body to 
produce heat and other forms of 
energy. . 



The fat con- 
tent of the body 
varies widely. 

The supply of 
carborhydrate 
taken in the food 
is used up daily 
or changed into 
fat and stored in 
the tissues. 



Typical foodstuffs representative of each food nutrient. 



[Drinking water 
[All beverages 
Fruits 



1. Water-! Milk 



Vegetables 
| Meat, eggs 
[more or less in all foods. 



Drinking water 
Fruits 
Vegetables 
Mineral } Cereals 

| Whole wheat or graham bread 

[Milk 

I Eggs 

[Meat 



3. Protein 



[Much in: 

[Meat 

<jEggs 

iCheese 

[Milk 



Less in: 

Wheat bread 

Beans 

Peas — Nuts — Cereals 



Small quantities in: 

All vegetables and 
fruits. 



4. Fats 



Cotton oil 
Olive oil 

Lard, suet, tallow, and all rendered fats. 
Butter 

The fat of all meats 
] Bacon 
Ripe olives 
Cheese 
All nuts 

Some small amount in all vegetables and 
fruits 

JPure in: Much in: 

Tapicoa 
Sugar Potatoes 

Syrup Rice 

Honey Macaroni 

-J Starch Bread 

Corn starch Cereals 

Arrow root Beans, peas, lentils, nuts, particularly al- 

monds and chestnuts. 

Beets 

Some in almost all vegetables and fruits in 
the form of starch and sugar 

Digestive Processes 

Digestive processes are mechanical and chemical. They are carried on from 
the time the food enters the mouth until it is absorbed into the blood stream. The 
changes taking place in nutrients from the time they are absorbed into the circulation 
until they are eliminated as body waste are designated by the term metabolism. 

The mechanical processes of digestion and metabolism comprise: food mas- 
tication and swallowing; its dilution wth water, and the emulsification of fats, and the 



5. Carbohydrates 



IP 



mixture into semi-liquid chime, by the motions of the stomach muscles; its slow move- 
ment, bringing it in contact with digestive fluids by the segmentation of the intestines ; 
the carriage of it through the blood stream to the cells as food and away from the 
cells as waste by means of the heart action and the force of gravity. 

The chemical processes of digestion and metabolism are performed by diges- 
tive fluids called enzymes. These enzymes are secreted by glands and cells and their 
secretion is caused by the presence of the material to be digested, and, in some instances, 
by thesight or odor of the food. They are fluids of unknown chemical composition, some 
acting in alkaline, some in acid, and some in neutral mediums. They are secreted in 
extremely small quantities, but act in such a manner as to cause great quantities of 
chemical changes without themselves being permanently changed. 
A list of ezymes* with an outline of where they are secreted and what work they per- 
form follows: 



I. Secreted in the mouth. 
(Salivary glands) 



II. Secreted in the stomach 



III. Secreted in the pancreas 
and emptied into the large 
intestines 



1. Ptyalin — acts on starch, changing it 
to maltose (a complex sugar) 



fl. Rennin — acts on protein, coagulating 

[ milk. 

•j 2. Pepsin — acts on proteins, changing them 

to simpler forms. 
|3. Lipase — acts on fats, emulsifying and 
[ partly breaking them down, 

f 1. Amylopsin — acts on carbohydrates, 

changing starch to maltose. 
I 2. Tryspin — acts on proteins, sent from 
•J stomach, changing them to still 

simpler forms. 
j 3. Lipase — acts on fats changing them to 
glycerine and fatty acid, ready for 
[ absorption into the intestinal wall 



IV. Secreted in the intestines. 



1. Sucrase (invertase) acts on carbohydrates 

changing cane sugar to the simple sugars: 
glucose and fructose. 

2. Malta se — acts on carbohydrates, changing mal- 

tose to glucose. 
5. Lactase — acts on carbohydrates, changing lactose 

(milk sugar) to glucose and galactose. 
4. Erepsin — acts on proteins, changing the pre- 
viously simplified forms to the simplest 
form ready for absorption. 



V. Secreted in the liver 



f 

I 
I 



VI. Secreted in muscles and tissues 



Liver diastase — acts on carbohydrates, changing 
glucose to glycogen. 

C 1. Glycolitic enzymes — causing glucose to 

] burn or oxydize as body fuel. 

| 2. Autolytic enzymes — changing proteins 

[ into cell substances and waste. 

The digestion of the several nutrients will be further discussed in connection 
with their action during the process of food preparation. 

*Note. An outline of "Enzymes and Their Actioii" is to be found in "A Text-book of Physiolo- 
gy" by Howell, which see. 



19 



THIRD LESSON 

Introductory work in manipulation of materials and conditions: 

Note. The separate divisions of this lesson cannot all be accomplished in one day. It will natural'y 
divide- itself into work for about four laboratory periods. It may not seem wisest under some con- 
ditions to give all of this introductory work consecutively. Any part of it may be introduced as 
seems wise to the teacher, previous to a lesson in which the facts taught in that division are to be 
involved. 

Information 

1. List of abbreviations used in Note book 



t = teaspoon 
T — tablespoon 
ss = salt spoon — % t. 
c = cup 



pt. = pint 
qt. = quart 
lb. == pound 
oz. = ounce 



er- 


= 


gram 


bu. 




bushel 


pk. 


= 


peck 


gal. 


= 


Gallon 



2. Table of Measurements: 



2c— lpt. 1 lb. — 453. 6 gr. 1 ordinary t. holds about 80 drops 

2pt.— lpt. 1 oz.— 28.35 gr. 4 T— 1 oz. (liquid) 

4 qt.— 1 gal. Ice— about 1-16 cubic inch. 

1 bu. of fruit or vegetables, such as potatoes and apples is counted as weighing 60 lbs. 

Note. The druggist's table reads 4t to the T and so have most people learned it, but in practice 
the present household T holds but 3 t and the t measures 75 to 80 drops, though the druggist's table 
gives: 60 drops (minims) = 1 t. 

Experiments. 

All measures should be leveled off by means of the straight edge of a knife 
blade or spatula. 



1. Experiments with measures 



(Sift flour once before using) 
How many t of water in 1 T? 
How many t of flour in 1 T? 
How many t of salt in 1 T? 
How many T of water in 1 c? 
How many T of flour in 1 c? 
How many T of salt in 1 c? 



Results 



Conclusions 



Determine weights by both metric system and avoirdupois. 



2. Experiments with weights. 



Avoirdupois Metric 



Conclusion 



What is the weight of 1 c water? 
What is the weight of 1 c flour? 
What is the weight of 1 c sugar? 
What is the weight of 1 c lard? 



Determine temperatures by both F. & C. thermometers. 

3. Experiments with temperatures 

(Hold thermometer bulb in hand and record temperature) 



I. Temperature of the body 



°F. 



20 



(Hang thermometer in room at various places and record temperature) 



II. Temperature of the room. 


Results 


(a) Near ceiling 


op 




°C. 


(b) Near floor 








(c) Near stove 








(d) Far from stove 


• ■ 







III. Temperatures of water. 



Results 



(a) 
(b) 



Record temperature of water fresh from 
well. 

Heat two cups of water and note tem- 
perature : 



1. 
2. 

3. 



At which small bubbles begin to rise 

At which larger bubbles rise and 
break at the surface. 



(c) 



When the surface of the water is 
completely agitated. 

Note temperature to which water rises 
in the top of a double boiler when the 
water below is boiling. 



(d) Temperatures of steam 

1 Note the temperature of steam just 
above the surface of boiling water. 

2 Note the temperature of steam in 
a covered steamer, over boiling 
water. Explain the difference. 



Note. Does the temperature of the water change 
in any of the above cases as the boiling is con- 
tinued? 



(e) Freezing temperatures. 
Note temperature: 

1 Of pounded ice or closely packed 
snow. 

2 Of a mixture of 4 parts ice to 1 
part salt. 

3 Of a mixture of 2 parts ice to 1 
salt. 



Explain the difference. 



21 



IV. Temperature of mixtures -and solutions. 

(a) Add 2 T of fat to 2 c boiling water. 

Record 

(1) Temperature when boiling pt. is 

reached. 

(2) Temperature after 5 min. boiling. 

(3) Temperature after 15 min. boiling. 

(b) Dissolve 1 c sugar in y% c water 

Record . . 

(1) Temperature when boiling point is 
reached. 

(2) Temperature after 5 min. boiling. 

(3) Temperature after 15 min. boiling. 
Does the temperature change in either case? 



Results 




°C. 



V. Conservation of Temperature. 


Results 




(a) The ftreless cooker. 


°F. 




°C. 


Fill two heated jars with boiling 
water; one place in fireless cooker or 
hay box;and one leave standing open 
in the room. At the end of the class 
period, 








Record temperature 








(1) Of the water in the packed jar. 








(2) Of the water in the uncovered jar. 








(b) The refrigerator 








Record the temperatures in the differ- 
ent compartments of the refrigerator 








(1) When closed for 1 hr. 








In ice chamber 








In top of storage shelves 








In bottom of storage shelves 








(2) When open one hour. 








(a) In ice chamber 








(b) In top of storage shelves 








(c) In bottom of storage shelves 









22 



Explain principle upon which a firelesa cooker and a refrigerator are made. 



Make a cross-section drawing of a refrigerator, showing the circulation of air 
within when closed, by arrows indicating th e direction of the current. 



23 



Demonstration : 

VI. Temperatures of fatT 



Conditions 



Temperatures 



Melt fat in a kettle and record: 

(1) Condition of cube of bread 
when dropped into fat at temperature of 
boiling water. 

(2) Temperature and condition of fat 
when bread is browned. 

(a) In 1 minute 

(b) In 40 seconds 

(3) What temperature when faint 
blue smoke rises? 

(4) What temperature when burning 
is evidenced by much smoke? 



Of Bread 



Of Fat 



°F 



C C. 



VII. Oven Temperatures. 

(a) Test the heated oven at the following temperatures as indicated by a thermometer 
and record condition of oven as felt by the hand as "very low temperature," "low tem- 
perature," "medium temperature," "high temperature," "very high temperature." 



Temperature 



By what of the above terms would you indicate it? 



C F. 



302 
347 
:392 
482 
572 




(b) Note the time it requires to toast bread a golden brown. 

(c) Record the condition of bread at the end of 5 min. 10 min. 15 min. 
Try counting by a watch 1 count per second : 



Temperatures 


Time required to 
toast bread 
golden brown 


Condition of bread at 
the end of 


Feeling to the 
hand held in 
io counts 


Rank in temp, 
"high," "low" 


°F. 


°C 


5 min. 


10 min 


15 min. 


etc. 


302° 


150° 














347 


175 














392 


200 














482 


250 














572 


300 















24 



Conclusions Tabulated for Practical Use 

Temperatures "low" or "high," using boiling point of water as a center: 



Experiment 



Temperatures 



I. 

II. 



III. 



IV. 



V. 



(b) 



(c) 

(d) 



Body temperature 

Room temperatures 

(a) Near ceiling 

(b) Near floor 

(c) Near stove 

(d) Far from stove 
Water, 
(a) Fresh from well 

Heated : 

(1) Small bubbles rising 

(2) Larger bubbles rising 

(3) Complete ebulition 
Top of double boiler 
Steam 

(1) Uncovered pan 

(2) Covered steamer 

(e) Freezing 

(1) Pounded ice 

(2) 4 parts ice to 1 part salt 

(3) 2 parts ice to 1 part salt. 
Mixtures and solutions of water 

(a) With fat 

(1) Boiling point 

(2) After 5 min. boiling 

(3) After 15 min. boiling 

(b) With sugar 

(1) Boiling point 

(2) After 5 min. boiling 

(3) After 15 min. boiling 
Conservation of Temperature 

(a) Jars 



(b) 



(1) 


In Fireless 




(2) 


In room 




Refrigerator 

(1) Temperature 


in ice box 


(2) 


Temperature 


lower shelf 


(3) 


Temperature top shelf 


(4) 


See drawing 


25 



o/-i 



C ! Low or High 



Experiments (continued 



Temperatures 



VI. Temperature of fat indicated by bread 
When soaked 

When brown in 1 minute 
When brown in 1 second 
When faint blue smoke rises 
When burning (much smoke) 

VII. Oven temperature 




High 



26 



FOURTH LESSON 

EXPERIMENTS WITH NUTRIENTS AND FOOD MATERIALS 

Water. 

References : 

Drinking Water and Ice Supplies, by Prudden. 
Human Foods by Harry Snyder 

Chapter XIX, Water 
Drinking Water and Ice Supplies by Prudden 
Farmers' Bulletins: 

73 (E. S. W. 4) p. 3) Pure Water on The Farm 

262 (E. S. W. 36) p. 5) Water for Table Use 

296 (E. S. W. 41) p. 5) Wells and Pure Water Supply 

Composition: Water is composed of hydrogen and oxygen in the relation of 
two parts of hydrogen combined with one part of oxygen, H 2 0. It usually contains in 
solution and suspension more or less mineral and organic material. Any appreciable 
amount of organic material indicates that the water is unsafe for drinking purposes. 

Experiments : 

Experiment 4 — Evaporation 
Utensils 

3 flat pans 1 stew kettle with cover 

1 deep can or tin cup 1 broad shallow pan 

1 stew kettle 

Procedure. 

I. Into each of three flat pans place % c of water and place them as follows 

(a) in a cool shaded part of the room 

(b) in the direct rays of the sun 

(c) on a hot stove to boil. 

What do you soon observe rising from the surface of the pan on the stove? 



Can you see the same results in the other two pans ? 
What causes the result you see? 



What is happening to the water? 



27 



pens 



? 



What finally happens in the pan on the stove? 

Let the pans (a) and (b) stand in their places several days. What hap- 



II. Into each of several vessels of varying diameters put 1 c of water: 

(a) Into the tall narrow can — like a baking powder can 

(b) Into the top of the double boiler, 

(c) Into a shallow stew kettle, 

(d) Into a shallow stew kettle, covered, 

(e) Into a broad shallow pan open. 

Place all on a hot stove, bring to boiling and observe evaporation, 
sil boils dry first? 

Which utensil boils dry first? 



Conclusions : 

Has the shape of the utensil anything to do with the rapidity of evaporation? 



Explain how. 

In general how do the following conditions affect evaporation? 
1. Climate 

Latitude 

Altitude 

Proximity to the sea 

28 



2. Local weather conditions 
Time of year 

Time of day 

High or low barometer 

Humidity of the air 

Motion of the atmosphere 



3. Utensils used for cooking. 

Size 



Diameter 



Shape 



4. Quantity of water in the utensil? 



Experiment 5. To illustrate the use of water as a solvent. 

I. (a) Take % c sugar and add to it, 1 t at a time, enough cold water to dis- 
solve it. Result. In how much water did the sugar dissolve? 

(b) Perform the same experiment with hot water. 

Result 

Proportion 

II. Perform the same experiment with water and salt. 
(a) Result 

29 



Proportion 

(b) Result 

Proportion 

Conclusion 

Practical application 

I. Making sugar syrup 

Utensils 

Small granite kettle Spatula 

Measuring cup Table spoon 

Dish or jar to receive cooked product 

Recipe (Use proportions determined in experiment) 

Sugar 

Water 



Manipulation; add to the sugar just sufficient water to dissolve it. Heat to 
the boiling point. Pour into a dish or receptacle for keeping it. This should be a uten- 
sil with a close cover; e. g., a glass fruit jar. 

Use: (a) To be used in serving any hot bread stuff. 

(b) All cold drinks are better sweetened with the syrup than with 
plain sugar. 



30 



FIFTH LESSON 

Experiment 6. Illustrating the use of water as a carrier of flavor. 

Utensils : 

Lemon .squeezer 2 glass measuring cups 

Table spoon Pitcher or granite bowl. 

Strainer or small piece of clean cheese cloth 

Manipulation: Squeeze the juice from one lemon. Strain this into a glass 
measuring cup. What is its consistency? Taste it. Measure it. Should you like 
to drink it so? How may we dilute the acid carried in the water of the fruit? Fill the 
cup with water? Taste. Is there enough acid to stand more dilution? Pour it into 
a pitcher or bowl. Add another V2 c of water. Sweeten with the syrup, from Experi- 
ment 4. Add by the t and keep account of amount, until it tastes sufficiently sweet. 

Record proportions: 

Lemon juice? 



Water ?- 



Syrups ? — 

Conclusion 

Water dilutes and carries the flavor of fruit juice forming a pleasant 
drink. 

Application. 

Experiment 7. Water used to carry flavor of fruit. 

I. Making lemonade 

From the result of the above experiment formulate a recipe for lemon- 
ade. 

Note. 1. Use 1 T as your basis of measurements, and plan for 1 glass of lem- 
onade. 

2. Never handle lemons or lemonade in a tin vessel. Always use 
earthenware or granite. Acids combine with tin forming a poison. 

Measures of water 

Measures of syrup 

Measures of lemon juice 



Manipulation — Add the sweetening to the lemon juice and then add water. 
Result: 1 glass of lemonade. 

Exercise — Formulate the recipe for sufficient amount to serve one dozen 
people; fifty people. 



31 



II. Making lemon ice — 



Note. If ice can be had (or in winter snow may be used) the lemonade may be frozen 
into lemon ice. 

Utensils (for small quantity) and supplies 
Small mixing bowl Ice 

Baking powder can Coarse salt 

Knife (silver) Lemonade 

Measuring cup (glass) 
Tablespoon 
Teaspoon 

A. Make freezing mixture of 4 parts ice, 1 part salt. 

Recipe — See lemonade. 

Manipulation — Place baking powder can in mixing bowl and surround it with 
the mixture of ice and salt (called a "freezing mixture.") Pour the lemonade into the 
baking powder can, and as soon as any freezing is evident, stir constantly, using the 
knife. 

Note: Chemical reactions do not take place readily in a cold condition. 
Hence if the tin can and lemonade start cold, it is safe to freeze the ice as indicated. 
Do not let it stand and melt in the can. 

(a) At the beginning of the process, take the temperature of 
The lemonade 

The freezing mixture 

(b) At the end of the process, repeat temperature tests. 
The lemon ice 

The freezing mixture 

B. The above procedure should be followed by another pupil at the same 
time, using a freezing mixture of 2 parts ice to 1 part salt, and all results taken. When 
both ices are finished, compare as to the time required for freezing of each, and the 
"grain" of the ice 

Results : 



Experiment 


Freezing 


Mixture 


Temperatures 


Time of 
Freezing 


Grain 




Proportions 


At Beginning 


At End: 


of Ice 




Ice 


Salt 


F. M. 


Lem Ice 


F. M. 


Lem. Ice 






A 
B 



















32 



Conclusions: 

Concerning the effect of the proportion of salt used, upon 
1. Time of freezing 



2. The grain of the ice. 



Is the same proportion of lemon used in the lemonade sufficient with ice? 



Is the same proportion of sugar used in the lemonade sufficient for the ice? 



Exercises : 

Using ice cream! freezer. 

General Rules for Making Ices 

The can, cover, and dasher of the freezer should be scalded, and then chilled 
before the mixture which is to be frozen is placed in it. Adjust the can carefully 
in the tub before packing. Pour in the mixture, put in the dasher, cover, adjust the 
crank, and pack with finely chopped ice, mixed with rock salt; this must be higher 
around the can than the mixture is insida. 

Coarse rock salt gives the best results in freezing. 

A heavy bag of burlap or canvas, and a wooden mallet are excellent for 
pounding the ice. An ice grinder is much more desirable. 

In freezing ice cream the crank should be turned slowly and steadily; in 
freezing sherbet, the crank should be turned rapidly and steadily; in freezing water 
ice or frozen fruit, turn the crank steadily five minutes, allow it to stand five minutes, 
turn again five minutes and continue until freezing is completed 

When the mixture is frozen, remove ice and salt from around the top of the can ; 
wipe cover and top; uncover and remove dasher, scrape it; then beat frozen mixture 
with wooden spoon or paddle; place paraffin paper over the can; cover and put a corK 
in the hole. Drain off all the water which has collected during the freezing, and 
which should not be removed until freezing is completed; repack the freezer, putting 
ice and salt over the top, cover and allow it to stand in a cold place for several hours. 

A tightly covered tin can and a wooden pail may be substituted for an ice 
cream freezer, using a wooden spoon or a paddle to scrape the mixture from the 
sides of the can as it freezes. 

In preparing frozen fruit or water-ice, the sugar and water should be made 
into a syrup, which should be boiled five minutes, then strained; in preparing ice with 
fruit, the sugar and crushed fruit should stand one hour in a cool place, or until the 
sugar is dissolved, then add syrup and freeze. 

Fruit juice is used for "water ice;" the fruit is pressed through a colander, 
or cut in small pieces with a silver knife for "frozen fruit;" either juice or crushed 
fruit may be used for ice; it is preferable to use only the juice of very seedy fruits. 

Lemon juice is combined with any fruit and serves to bring out the flavor 
of the fruit. The juice of one lemon being used for each quart of ice. 

33 



1. Formulate recipe for lemon ice sufficient for !/•> gal. of ice when frozen 



How many persons will it serve? 



III. Orange ice 

(1 qt water 
I. Boil 5 Min. <2 c sugar 



II. Add to the Syrup 



2 c orange juice 
[ Y4, c lemon juice 



Then cool [ grated rind of 1 orange 

Strain the mixture; cool; freeze. 

3. Any ripe fruit, stewed or fresh, may be put through the colander and 
used in place of orange juice, or any fruit juice may be used. 



34 



SIXTH LESSON 
Continuing the Use of Water as a Carrier of Flavors. 

References : 

See present newspaper advertisements for Postum Cereal, showing cafhene 
and tannin tests for coffee. 

Human Foods by Harry Snyder 

Chapter XIV— "Tea, Coffee, Chocolate and Cocoa." 

The Story of Chocolate by The Walter Baker Co., Ltd., Dorchester, Mass. 

Farmers' Bulletin 

105 (E. S. W. 11) p. 19. Some Coffee Substitutes. 

III. Making coffee. 

Experiment 8: 

Utensils Recipe 

Glass flask 
Glass funnel n 2 T. ground coffee 

Filter paper J c boilin £ water 

Coffee pots 

Manipulations: (three in number) 

(1) Fold filter paper to fit funnel, wet it from the interior and see that it 
fits the funnel closely around the edge. Place the coffee on the filter paper 
and pour over it the boiling water. 

(2) Tie the ground coffee loosely in a piece of cheese cloth. Place it in a 
coffee pot. Pour over it the boiling water and let it simmer for five min- 
utes, at the end of the time lift the bag of coffee from out of the coffee 
pot. 

(3) Prepare the material in the same manner as in (2) ; letting it stand 
but keeping hot, for 30 minutes, after the five minutes simmering, 
before lifting out the "coffee grounds." 

Comparisons : 

(1) Taste all three beverages. 

(2) Place some of each in a test tube, or jelly glass (half full.) Mark 
the samples "1," "2," "3," and test for tannin. 

Test: 

To y-2 glass of coffee solution, add 10 c c of 10 per cent solution of lead 
acetate. The precipitate shows presence of tannin. 



35 



Result : 
Experiment. 



Method. 



Time. 



Evidences of Tannin Color. 



Flavor. 



No. 1. 
No. 2. 
No. 3. 



Coffee filtered 

Coffee simmered 

Coffee simmered 
and steeped 



5 minutes 



5 minutes 
30 minutes 



Conclusions : 

(1) As to best method for coffee making. 



(2) As to water as a carrier of flavor. 



Application : 

Making a pot of coffee for 6 people. 
Utensils : 
Coffee pot 
Knife 



Tea kettle of freshly boiled water 
A tablespoon 
Cheese cloth 



Note. It is a great advantage to put the coffee into some porous carrier which may be re- 
moved, containing the grounds, at the proper time. A cheese cloth sack may be used — for larger quan- 
tities, a clean salt sack is useful. Aluminum tea balls or "strainers" with lids may be had at very 
small cost. 

Recipe for 6 persons: 
7 c boiling water 
12 T coffee 
Egg (optional) 

Manipulation: A clearer and richer colored product may be obtained by adding 
(1) t of egg for each cup of coffee. If the egg be used, it should be mixed through the 
ground coffee with a few T of cold water, before putting it into the container for cooking. 
Then add the boiling water. Let it simmer for 5 min. and stand 5 min. longer before sepa- 
rating the grounds from the beverage. 

Notes. (1) A percolator or coffee pot with strainer attachment obviates the use of the cloth 
bag. 

(2) If the egg is not used for clearing, a few T of cold water may be dashed in at the end of 
the simmering process. Some use crushed egg shells. These should be freshly broken. Some use just 
the yolk of the egg. Others just the white. 

Question. What is the purpose of adding the egg? 

Observe the grounds when egg have been used. What did the egg do? 



What does the cold water do? 
Explain. 



36 



Recipe for 1 cup. 
1 t tea 
1 c bdHing water 



Experiment 9. IV. Making Tea. 

Utensils. 

Tea kettle of freshly boiled water 

Tea pot (earthen) 

t spoon 

tea ball or strainer or square of 
cheese cloth 
Procedure : 

(a) Use black tea and make a cup of tea by placing tea, enclosed in ball, 
strainer, or cheese cloth, in a hot earthen tea pot. Pour over this the 
boiling water. 

(1) Steep 3 minutes and remove the grounds at once. 

(2) Repeat, steeping 10 min. 

(3) Repeat, steeping 30 min. 

(4) Repeat, boiling 15 min. 

Compare these four products as to color, flavor, tannin, and tabulate results. For 
the tannin test, use % glass of tea and 10 c. c. of lead acetate as in coffee experiment. 

(b) Repeat (a), using green tea. 

Results : 



Experiment 


Method. 


Time. 


Tannin. 


Color. 


Flavor. 


(a) Black tea 

(1) 












(2) 












(3) 












(4) 












(b) Green tea 

(1) 












(2) 












(3) 












(4) 













Conclusions as to methods for making tea: 



37 



Practical application; Make and serve tea or coffee at next social affair of the 
school or at home. 

Coffee is served hot" with cream and loaf sugar. 

Tea is served hot with cream and sugar, or with lemon and sugar, and sometimes 
with cloves. When the latter method is used, the guest should be asked if he will have 
lemon and cloves and they should be placed in the cup, the hot tea being poured in upon 
them. Two cubes of sugar are placed on the saucer or the sugar is passed to the guests in 
turn. Tea may also be served cold by pouring over ice and mint leaves or lemon, adding 
granulated sugar. 



38 



SEVENTH LESSON. 

Fruits. 

References : 

Human Foods by Harry Snyder. 

Chapter IV— "Fruits, Flavors, Extracts." 
Farmers' Bulletins: 

293— Use of Fruit as a Food. 

105 — (E. S. W. 12, p. 22) Food Value of Apricots, Cherries, Peaches, plums and 

Prunes. 
193— (E. S. W. 25, p. 15) Cold Storage of Fruit. 
118— (E. S. W. 15, p. 12)Mechanical Cold Storage of Fruit. 
334— (E. S. W. 48, p. 17) The Keeping of Apples. 
202— (E. S. W. 26, p. 29) A Cheap Fruit Evaporator. 
175 — Home Manufacture of Unfermented Grape Juice. 
122— (E. S. W. 16, p. 27) Preparation of Unfermented Grape Juice. 
78— (E. S. W 5, p. 29) The Preservation of Grape Juice and Sweet Cider. 

*Composition of Several Fruits (the numbers represent per cent) : 

















Fuel Values 


Fresh Fruit. 


Refuse. 


H 2 


Protein. 


Fat 


Carbohydrate 


Ash 


per lb. 
(Calories) 


Apples 


25 


63.3 


0.3 


0.3 


10.8 


.3 


220 


Strawberri es 


5 


85.9 


.3 


.6 


7.0 


.6 


175 


Oranges 


27 


63.4 


.6 


.1 


8.5 


.4 


170 


Bananas 


35 


48.9 


.8 


.4 


14.3 


.6 


300 



For graphic illustrations of Composition, see: Illustrated Food Chart by C. F. 
Langworthy. 

"Note. The percentage composition of various food stuffs given in this note book is taken 
from Bulletin 28, Chemical Composition of American Food Materials, by W. O. Atwater, U. S- Dept. of 
Agriculture. 

Experiment 10. Showing composition of the Apple. 
Utensils and Supplies: 

Grater Evaporating dish 

Bowl 2 Glass tubes 

Measuring cup Test tube 

Cheese cloth Test tube holder 

Plate Litmus paper 

Pan of hot water Apple 

Paring knife Water 

Procedure: Fehling's solution 

1. Grate the apple. 

2. Squeeze out the juice through cheese cloth. 

3. Compare quantities of juice and pulp. 

4. Dry the fibre and examine its structure. 

5. Taste the juice, note flavors, sugar, acid. 

6. Test with litmus paper.* 

7. Place small quantity, about 1 c. c. in a test tube. Test for sugar. 

Explanation. — The test of sugar is made with Fehling's solution as follows: 

Place material to be tested in a perfectly clean test tube. Add 1 c. c. of water. 
Holding test tube by means of wire holder warm the liquid slightly over a flame. Now 
add the Fehling's solution as follows. (Have two pieces of clean glass tubing, each several 
inches long. Use these as dippers. Place one rod in the green Copper Sulphate Solution 
(CuS0 4 ). Place the other in the bottle of Potassium Hydroxide (KOH).) 

(a) Closing the top end of the tubing by pressing the fingers on it, lift up the 
ube from the CuS0 4 and let a few drops of the green liquid drop into the test tube. 

*Jfote. If a substance is acid it will turn blue litmus paper pink. 
If it is alkaline, it will turn the pink paper blue. 

Test: Take a piece of blue litmus paper — dip it in vinegar — note result. Wash it in clear 
water, now dip it in soda water and again observe result. ! 'J 

40 



(b) In the same manner add a few drops of the KOH. Add enough for the solution 
to turn blue. And then heat over the flame. A yellow precipitate, shading from light yellow 
te deep orange color will imdicate the presence of a simple sugar. 

8. Burn V 2 the pulp on top of a hot stove lid or porcelain crucible or evapo- 

rating dish. The ash left is the mineral. 

9. Cook other y 2 of pulp in V2 e boiling water. 

Examine. 
Does composi tion show water? 

Mineral? i f 1 ! ," I 1 : 

Sugar (carbohydrate) ? 

Some other fuel material which burned ? 

Would the sugar burn if dry? 

Try some in a flame. ' 

What does cooking do to the fiber? 

Examine cooked and raw fiber under microseope. 



(B) Utensils already out. 
Procedure : 

1. Take two apples of same kind and shape. 

2. Pare one, core and cut into eighths. 

3 Place the pieces on a plate over a pa. of boiling water and dr apples there 
until very dry. The drying may be completed in the sun 0: a very slow 

oven. . , , 

4. When the first apple is dry, pare the other apple, core and eu; int.. eigntns. 

Comparisons : 

1. Compare the two apples as to : 
Color, 

Texture, 

Weight. 

What constituent of the dried apple has been lost? 

Of what advantage is this ' 

41 



i:..". i:.; -.:■=.:• si ■ 

2. Wrap half of ths pieces of the fresh apple in a moist cloth and put them in 

a covered dish till next day. 

3. Soak half of the pieces of the dried apple in Yi e °f c0 ^ water until next 

day. 

4. Again compare the two as to : 

Texture, 

Weight. 

What has happened to the dried apple 



5. Place pieces of both fresh and dried apple in covered jelly glasses and leave 
them for one week. What do you observe? 



Conclusions : 

(1) As to effect of drying upon keeping qualities. 



(2) As to how the water lost in evaporation may be replaced. 



(3) As to methods used in drying. 
Sun drying. 



Artificial drying. 



42 



EIGHTH LESSON. 
APPLICATION LESSON ON FRUIT 

I. The Cooking of Fresh Fruits 

Experiment 12. Making Apple Sauce. 

Utensils needed for lesson •• Food materials needed : 

One large sauce pan and cove r. 6 medium sized apples. 

One measuring cup. y% e sugar. 

One large tablespoon. 
Two vegetable knives. 
Two large bowls. 

Manipulation: 

(1) Cook % of the apples in stew pan, with about one-half as much water as 
apples by measure. Use Vfc the sugar to sweeten them when ready to serve. 

(2) Cook the other half oi the apples in the same quantity of water used in 
(1) and tbu same quantity of sugar used in (1) added when the apples go 
on to cook. 

Comparisons : 

When ready to serve the two kinds of apple sauce, note the difference in: 
Appearance, 



Texture, 



Flavor. 



Conclusions : 



43 



Baked Apples. 

Apples Sugar 

Raisins Cinnamon 

Wash and core apples; place them in a buttered baking dish. Pill the hole in 
each apple with 1 t butter, a little cinnamon and chopped raisins or nuts. Put over each 
apple 1 T of brown sugar. Bake in a hot oven until tender. Serve with cream. 

Steamed Apples. 

Prepare and season apples as for baking. Place each apple in a cup or ramequin, 
and steam them in a covered steamer until tender. 

Jellied Apples. 

Make a heavy syrup with 2 parts sugar and 1 part water. Drop into it whole 
apples which have been washed and cored. Add a stick of cinnamon and a half dozen 
cloves. Cook until apples are tender. Lift apples into a serving dish. Cook the syrup un- 
til reduced to a jelly like consistency and pour it over the apples. Serve with whipped 
cream. 

Pears are delicious prepared in any of the above ways, omitting the raisins and 
spice. 

Escalloped Apples. 

3 c chopped apples 2 c crumbs 
% c sugar 2 T butter 

% t cinnamon % lemon, juice and rind 

% t nutmeg % c water 

Add sugar, cinnamon, nutmeg and lemon rind to chopped apples. Add crumbs to 
melted butter. 

Line the bottom of a buttered baking dish with *4 the crumbs, then add % the 
apples. Add % more crumbs and remainder of apples, lemon juice and water. Cover with 
buttered crumbs. Bake in a moderate oven iy 2 hours. Cover first hour. 

Rhubarb Sauce. 

1 pt. rhubarb 1 c sugar 

y% c water 

Wash rhubarb stalks, peel the flat side, and cut in V2 inch lengths. Put rhubarb 
in a sauce pan, add water and stew until tender, stirring often at first. Add sugar and heat 
till sugar is dissolved. 

Steamed Rhubarb. 

Prepare rhubarb as for sauce. Put all material in top of double boiler and cook 
until tender. 

Baked Rhubarb. 

Prepare as rhubarb sauce, put in earthen baking dish. Cover and bake until tender 
and deep red in color. 

Escalloped Rhubarb. 

Follow recipe for esealloping apple, s ubstituting 3 c slice rhubarb for the apple and 
adding y 2 c sugar. 

Cherries, gooseberries, plums and all other fruits may be prepared after any of the 
methods indicated for apples or rhubarb. 

Any of the juicy fuits or berries may be treated as the rhubarb. The quantity of 
sugar must be varied. 

Cranberry Jelly. 

4 c cranberries 1 or 2 c water 

1 e sugar 
Pick over and wash the cranberries. Cook them in water until they burst from their 
skins, and press through a strainer. Add sugar to juice and stir until the sugar is dis- 
solved. Then, without stirring, boil 8 to 10 minutes, or until it jells when dropped on a cold 
saucer, and pour into molds or glasses which have been wet with cold water, and set away 
to cool. 



44 



Experiment 13. Replacing of water lost in drying and softening the cellulose of dried fruit. 
II. The cooking of Dried Fruits. Cooking dried peaches, or dried apples. 
Utensils : 

Large sauce pan and cover Large bowl 

Measuring cup Vegetable knife 

Large spoon 
Procedure : 

Fruit should be washed and put to soak the day before, by pupils. 
Recipe : 

1 pound of dried peaches or prunes 1-3 c sugar 
Manipulation : 

Weigh the fruit dry. The fruit should be soaked in water enough to cover it 
and should be placed in a vessel which can be covered. The next day it 
should be removed from the juice and weighed, then cooked in a double 
boiler for 1 hour, the sugar being added when it goes on to cook. If a tart 
flavor is desired, Y> lemon may be sliced into the cooking peaches. 
Results : 

Weight, dry? 



Weight, soaked? 

Gain in weight? 

Gara, per cent, in weight 



Note. Much of the mineral matter of fruit lies directly underneath the skin; it is therefore 
best to cook fruit in the skin whenever possible, as, for example, baking apples, or cooking them whole 
in syrup. The fuzz on peaches is unpleasant to take. Peaches may be peeled like tomatoes by 
scalding, thus a very thin skin is removed. Prunes are nice served as follows: When cooked, cut 
open the side of the prune, remove the seed and put in its place a nut meat; close the prune and serve 
heaped in dishes and covered with the rich juice and whipped cream. 



45 



Water in the Diet and Digestion 

Water is an essential food constituent. One can live much longer without food than 
without water. 

Water forms the greater part of the substance of every living cell. It makes pos- 
sible the circulation of food materials to the tells and the disposal of body wastes. It dis- 
solves the mineral food elements and carries them in solution to perform their offices. It 
dilutes the digestive juices to the proportions in which they act most effectively. Remove 
the water supply from the body and digestive juices will cease to flow: waste will not be 
removed; the skin will parch; the eyes become inflamed ; the muscles shrivel; and the final 
death of every cell result. 

The body of an adult of average weight throws off about three pints of water daily. 
Hence, this amount at least should be taken in. Our foodstuffs have some water content : 
from 1.4 per cent in some nuts and 5.8 per cent in the dryest form of crackers, to about 96 
per cent to 98 per cent in some soups and broths, and 87 per cent in milk. Besides the 
water taken in our foodstuffs, we should have plenty of safe, pure drinking water, and in 
quantity it should be not less than one quart in twenty-four hours for a person of average 
weight. This is taken in the form of beverages such as tea, coffee, and best of all, pure 
water. If one does "not like water" the desire for it may be cultivated through drinking 
water containing fruit juices, such as lemons, limes, oranges, grapes, cherries, etc. The 
eating of juicy fruits, such as oranges, grapefruit, etc., furnishes a drink of pure water dis- 
tilled by Nature's processes. 

Minerals in the Diet and Digestion. 

The mineral constituents of our food supply occupy a far more important place than 
was at one time given them, and we should give attention to the matter of securing proper 
mineral content in our food. 

Calcium has long been known to be important in the child's diet as a former of bone 
structure and teeth, but it is now known that besides performing that important office, it is 
absolutely essential in the processes of digestion and circulation. And iron is essential not 
only as a color producer in eyes and hair and all color pigments of the body, but is the 
constituent of those blood cells called red corpuscles which enables them to take up and 
carry their burden of oxygen to all parts of the body. We cannot here go into a detailed 
discussion of the many offices of these mineral food constituents, which keep the digestive 
juices in turn alkaline,* then acid, then alkaline, and so on — the proper condition at the 
proper time — surely are we "wonderfully made." But each is essential in its own minute 
way and the body demands them and becomes an hungered for them just as much as it 
does for those constituents which are more evident to our sight as fat, or sugar, or starch, 
or water. 

*Jfote. The saliva is the first digestive juice which comes in contact with our food. Is it 
alkaliDe or acid? 

How might you easily determine? 

Which is the blood? 

Test some beef juice. 

Test perspiration for acidity. 

It is much more desirable that we should obtain these minerals in our foods than 
that we should take them in the form of tonics, prescribed by physicians or patent medicine 
firms; and sufficient of these are obtained if our diet contains plenty of milk, cheese, eggs, 
fruit and vegetables ; above all, the fruits and vegetables should not be neglected in the 
diet, and with our gardens in summer and our modern canning processes, by which sum- 
mer's supply may be stored for winter use, we need not suffer for need of these things — we 
should look ahead to having sufficient supplise of mineral yielding foodstuffs. 



53 



NINTH LESSON. 

Proteins. 

The food materials dealt with in the experiments under this subject are those 
having high percentages of protein, usually combined with other nutrients. Of these, w« 
have taken up milk first, because it not only contains protein, but all of the nutrients, and 
these, in such combination as to be easily separated and distinguished. 

Milk. 

References : 

Human Foods, by Snyder. 

Chapter VII — Milk and Dairy Products. 
Farmers' Bulletins: 

363— The Use of Milk as a Food ; 

149— (E. S. W. 20, p. 27) The Digestibility of Raw Pasteurized and Cooked 
Milk ; 

375— The Care of Food in the Home; 

413 — The Care of Milk and Its Use in the Home; 

487 — Cheese and Its Economical Use iu the Diet; 

490 — Bacteria in Milk. 

Composition of Milk and Milk Products. 

Fuel Value per lb. 



Food 


Refuse 


Water 


Protein 


Fat 


Carbohydrates 


Ash 


calories. 


Whole Milk 




87.0 


3.3 


4.0 


5.0 


0.7 


325 


Milk Skimmed 




90.5 


3.4 


0.3 


5.1 


0.7 


170 


Buttermilk 




91.0 


3.0 


0.5 


4.8 


0.7 


165 


Cream 




74.0 


2.5 


18.5 


4.5 


0.5 


910 


Butter 




11.0 


1.0 


85.0 




3.0 


3605 


Cheese: 










0.3 


3.4 


3605 


American pale 




31.6 


28.8 


35.9 


4.3 


1.8 


2055 


Cottage 




72.0 


20.9 


1.0 






510 



For graphic illustrations of composition see Illustrated Charts by Dr. C. F. Lang- 
worthy. 

Experiment 13. Showing presence of the different nutrients in milk. 
Utensils : 

Porcelain Evaporating dish 
Tripod and alcohol lamp or flame of stove. 
Triangle 

Cup or shallow par- 
Procedure : 

Place the pan, partly filled with water, Dver a flame ; lay the triangle across 
the top ; set the dish on the triangle holder, and place in the dish 2 T of 
sweet milk. Let the milk heat there. Look across the top of the dish, and 
observe the rising steam. Observe the decrease in the volume of milk. Let 
it heat there until the material in the dish is dry. What « passed off? 

What is left? 



Plate the dish in an oven or over a flame. What happens? 



Heat until blackness disappears. What is left? 



54 



Is water present in milk? 
Are solids present in milk? 
Do the the solids burn? 
Do all of the solids burn? 



What are solids which do not burn called? 

Experiment 14. Test for Fat. 

I. Gravity Test for Cream. 

What is the weight of a c of milk? Pill a glass measuring cup, or graduated cylin- 
der, level full of fresh, whole milk. Let it stand 6 to 12 hours until cream has raised to 
the top. 



What proportion of milk is cream? 

What per cent is cream; by measure? 

By weight? 

See Langworthy Chart for composition of cream. 

What food principle is most largely represented by the cream? 

II. Churning Test for Fat. 

Utensils and Supplies- 

White bowl Thermometer 

Square of cheese cloth String 

Dover egg beater 1 c sour cream 

Procedure: Cut a slit in the center of the cheese cloth large enough for the 
handle of the egg beater to pass through. Scald the utensils and string and 
cloth. Take 1 c of thick sour cream ; weigh the cream ; place the cream in 
the bowl; slip the egg beater handle through the cheese cloth and fasten 
the cloth, by means of the string, down around the top of the bowl. Beat 
the cream until the fat separates out; skim out the fat; place it in a bowl 
of cold salt water and work with a spatula into a solid ball or roll. 

Measure the buttermilk left. 

Weigh the butter. 

What proportion of the cream was fat? 

What per cent of fat by measure? 

What are these proportions by weight? 

What per cent of whole milk is butter fat? 



55 



III. Babcoek's Test for Fat, 

Many neighborhoods own Babcock Cream Testers. In some places this community 
tester is kept at the school house. Any older pupil, by experience, can learn to make the 
Babcock test for butter fat. This test is more accurate than the churning test and it would 
be valuable indeed if every owner of a cow knew what she was yielding in butter fat. 



Results tabulated : 



Measure 
of Cream 



Weight 
of Cream 



Measure of 
Buttermilk. 



Measure 
of Butter 



Weight 
of Butter 



Percent of Butter 
by Measure 



Percent of Butter 
by Weight 



Describe a Babcock Cream Tester. 
On what principle is it constructed? 



lc skimmed milk 
J /4 c vinegar 



Experiment 15. Test for Casein 
Utensils and supplies: 
Measuring cup 
Glass or cup 
Filter paper 
Funnel 
Glass bottle or flask 
Procedure : 

Take 1 c of skimmed milk. Add vinegar, 1 t at a time, until the curd or precipi- 
tate forms, let it stand a few minutes until the curd is well precipitated, 
or separated out. Fold a filter paper to fit the funnel and moisten the 
paper, taking care that it fits the funnel sides closely at the edges. Place 
the funnel in the bottle or R&Jk, to drip, and pour the milk through. 

What is on the filter? (Curd, casein) 



What is the watery portion' (Whey, Taste it) 
How does it taste? 



56 



What was skimmed off before the experiment b> gan? 

Then we have found at least three different substances : 

Cream (Fat) 

Curd (Casein) 

Whey (Water) 
What caused the curd to be precipitated out of the whey? 

Does it ever separate naturally? 

What causes it? 

Use these materials in the following experiments 16 and 17. 

Experiment 16 Test for Protein. 
Utensils and Supplies: 

Test tube Nitric acid 

Test tube holder Ammonium Hydroxide 

Flame Curd 

Glass rod 

Caution Be careful not to get the nitric acid on the fingers, or to drop it on table or 
clothing. It burns severely. 

Place some of the curd in a test tube — a small amount — 1 e. c. 

Carefully add 2 c. c. of nitric acid (HN0 3 ) and heat. Then cool. When cooled, 
add about 5 c. c. of ammonium hydroxide (NH 4 OH). Stir with glass rods. If a distinct 
yellow color appears it gives evidence of nitrogenous organic matter (Protein). 

Experiment 17. Test for Carbohydrates. 

(The carbohydrates are cellulose, stach, and sugar.) 

I. Cellulose is present only in plants and is most evident by the presence of plant 
fibre. Is there any in milk? 

II. Test for Starch. 

To 1 t of milk add a few drops of tincture of iodine. A blue color denotes the pres- 
ence of starch. Is there any in milk? 

III. Test for Sugar. 
Put 5 c. c. of milk in a test tube and proceed with the test for sugar as described 
under experiment 10. 

A yellow precipitate shows the presence of glucose or lactose, sugars. 
Is there sugar in milk? 

Summary of Results. 

What food constituents have we discovered in milk ? 

Water? 
How found? 



Mineral ? 
How founds 



57 



Protein? 
How found? 



Fat? 

How found? 



Carbohydrate ? 
In what form? 
How found? 



Name the necessary constituents of our food. 



Does milk contain all of these constituents? 



Milk is therefore apparently a perfect food, and it truly is a perfect food, for the 
infant and young child. 

Experiment 18. Effect of Heat upon Milk. 
Utensils and Supplies: 

Small kettle Flask 

Measuring cup Porcelain evaporating dish 

Flame V£ e milk 

Funnel Nitric acid 

Filter paper Ammonium hydroxide 

Boil !/2 c of milk. Taste it. Note the skin which forms on the top. Carefully 
remove this. Place it on the filter paper in a funnel. Wash it by pouring water over it 
several times and letting the water filter off. Now place the material in a test tube and 
test as you did curd for protein. 

Is it protein ? 



This skin is a protein called albumin — and it hardens with the heat forming this 
skin on top of milk when heated. It also cooks fast to the sides and bottom of the vessel. 
Pour the milk out of the kettle. 

Scrape the sides of the kettle. 

Burn the material iu the evaporating dish. 

Is ash present? 



58 



It is true that most of the calcium is carried down and deposited on the bottom of 
the vessel when milk is boiled or heated to a high temperature, just as lime deposits on the 
bottom of the tea kettle in which hard water is heated. 

Now this calcium is a most essential food element, particularly for the growing 
babe and the small child who are depending upon it very largely for bone and teeth 
structure. Therefore milk, heated to boiling or a high temperature— above 70 degrees 
Centigrade — is unfit for feeding babies. 



59 



TENTH LESSON. 
PRACTICAL USE OF MILK. 

1. Butter Making. 

References : 

Farmers' Bulletins: 

541 — Farm Butter Making. 

131 — Household Tests for Detection of Oleomargarine and Renovated Butter. 

Experiment 18. Determining Best Temperature for Butter Making. 
Utensils and Supplies: 

4 white bowls or Mason jars 

4 Dover egg beaters or jar rubbers and lids 

1 measuring cup 4 squares of cheese cloth 

Thermometers 4 strings 

4 dishes or bowls for washing butter 

4 cups of thick sour cream (about 36 hrs. old) 

Procedure : 

Scald the utensils. Weigh each cup of cream and after emptying, weigh the 
soiled cup and subtract its weight. The result equals the weight of the 
cream. Record weights: 



Pour the weighed cream from the cup into a bowl or jai ;.bel the receptacles 
and record the temperature of each. 

Temperatures : 

(a) 

(b) 
(c) 
(d) 

Next: 

(a) Pack in ice and lower temperature to 40° C. 

(b) Let stand in room until temperature reaches about 63° to 65° F. 
(the approximate temperature of a comfortable room). 

(c) Let stand in room or in warm water until the temperature reaches 

85° F. (the approximate temperature of a room on a hot day). 

(d) Warm gently to "hike warm" or body temperature: 98° F. When 

temperatures are correct, cover the containers ; note the time ; 
insert Dover egg beater or place the lids on the jars; churn, by 
using the egg beater or shaking the jar, until the butter forms 
in lumps. Note the time and temperature. Skim out the butter, 
wash it in cold salt water and weigh it. Record the time occu- 
pied in churning. If butter does not come in all jars at near the 
same time add cold water, or warm as seems wise, and continue 
churning. 



60 



Results : 










Experiment 


Quantity 
of Cream 


Temperature at 
Beginning 


Time used in 
Churning 


Final Expedient 
Resorted to 


Additional 
Time Used 


a 












b 












e 












d 












Temperature 
at End 


Weight of 
Butter 


Per Cent of 
Butter 


Flavor 


Color 


Grain 


a 
b 












c 












d 













Salt the butter, pack in a clean bowl, cover, store until cold, and make into butter 
balls, later. 

Conclusions : 

At what temperature does butter "come" most quickly? 



How does temperature seem to affect: 
The color? 



The flavor? 



The quantity? 



Therefore what do you conclude to be the best temperature for churning \ 



Apply at home in doing a family churning and see if these conclusions are borne 
out by your experience there. 

Making Butter Balls. 

Scrub butter paddles well with whit 1 soap and hot water, rinse in clean boiling 
water, and chill in ice water. 

Cut each half pound of butter into 16 pieces of equal size. Shake water from pad- 
dles, hold one paddle firmly in left hand, and roll piece of butter on that, with the paddle 
in the right hand, until round. 



61 



ELEVENTH LESSON. 

II. Methods of Making Solid Foods from Milk. 

1. Solidifying milk by the action of lactic acid. (Souring until it is clabered). 
Skim off the cream for butter making. 
Uses of the skimmed milk: 

(a) Many people like to eat clabber in this form, plain, or with brown sugar, 

jelly or syrup. 

(b) More people use it for making cottage cheese. This is done by several 

methods. 

Experiment 19. Precipitating Casein for Cottage Cheese by means of acid and heat. 
Utensils and Supplies: 

White bowls Cheese cloth (5 squares 10-in. double) 

Stew kettles Sieves 

Double boiler Table spoon 

Measuring cup Sour milk (3 pt.) 

Procedure : 

Take five cups of thick clabbered milk and warm them respectively, as fol- 
lows: 

(a) To body temperature— 98° F. 

(b) Heat to boiling in a pan. 

(c) Place in double boiler and heat to steaming. (Record temperature at once) 

(d) Place in double boiler or crock at back of stove and watch carefully until 

it separates. Take temperature at onee. 

(e) Place in a bowl and into it pour, not in one spot, but round and round, 

an equal quantity of boiling water. Take temperature at once. 
Place a cheese cloth over a strainer resting in a bowl and pour the cheese 

(a) onto it letting it drain for several minutes. Over other bowls, in the 

same manner, drain (b), (e), (d), (e). 
Remove the curds to saucers and taste and touch with fork, and with fingers. 

What is the condition of the various curds? 



Results : 



Experiment Method Used Temperature 



Condition of Cheese 




Which curd is most tender? 
Conclusions : 

The surest method of getting good cottage cheese? 



Temperature to produce best cheese ?f 



Practical Application: Make sufficient quantity of cottage cheese for a meal at 
home. 
Methods of Serving : 

To Serve Cottage Cheese. 

Cool the curd, salt it and break it into fine particles by using a fork, at the same 
time mixing into it thick cream sufficient to make it smooth and capable of being molded out. 

1. Serve in a blue dist or in a white vegetable dish on a bed of lettuce leaves, in 
large enough quantity to be the meat substitute for the meal. 

2. Serve as a relish : 

(a) In small flat cakes or patties garnished with jelly. 

(b) Made into balls and rolled in ground nut meats. 

(c) Made into balls, rolled in crumbs and fried in deep fat. 

3. Serve as salad: 

(a) On lettuce leaf, with a cooked mayonnaise dressing. 

(b) Mixed with cherries and served as in (a). 

(c) Mixed with nuts and served as in (a). 

(d) Mixed with chopped cucumbers or pimentos and filled into the half of a 

green mango pepper. 
2. Solidifying by means of an enzyme (rennin). 

Experiment 20. — Junket ' 

Utensils : Recipe : 

Granite kettle or double boiler 1 c milk 

Thermometer % junket tablet 

Teaspoon 1 t sugar 

Measuring cup Flavoring 

2 tea cups 
Procedure : 

Dissolve junket in 1 t cold water. Heat milk to body temperature, add sugar, 
flavoring, and junket. Pour into two cups to mold. Let stand in a warm 
place V2 hr. 
Result? 

Try heating milk to boiling and then add junket. Result? 



Try having milk very cold — from cellar or refrigerator and add junket. 
Result ? 



63 



Explain why any of these failed to solidify. 

What is rennet? How obtained? 

How is "cream cheese" ordinarily made? 

In what ways have we made milk solid? 
1. By acid. 

(a) Adding vinegar, 
(b) Letting stand to sour. 
2. By the use of what digestive enzyme? 

At what temperature do enzymes act? 

Practical Application Junket Pudding. 

1 qt. milk 1 junket tablet dissolved in 14 c 

2 T sugar luke warm water 

Heat milk until luke warm. Add sugar and stir until dissolved. Add rennet and 
a few drops of vanilla. Stir slightly and pour into moulds. Let stand until firm. Sprinkle 
with nutmeg; chill. Serve with cream and sugar. Junket should be handled carefully so 
as not to jar and break curd and cause separation of whey. 

Junket may be flavored and colored by the addition of fruit juice such as straw* 
berry, raspberry, graps or melted jelly made of these fruits. 

Serve with fruit ganish or with cream, plain or whipped. 



64 



TWELFTH LESSON. 
Milk as a Basis, r other preparations. 



Experiment 21. — White Sauce. 

Recipe : 



Milk 


Flour 


Butter 


Consistency 


Use? 


1 c 


1 t 


1 t 






1 c 


1 T 


1 T 






1 c 


2 T 


2 T 






1 c 


3 T 


2 T 






1 c 


4 T 


2 T 







Manipulation : One of several methods of mixing may be used in making white 
sauce. 

(1) The cold butter may be thoroughly mixed with the flour, added to the cold 
milk and let melt and blend gradually as the milk heats in the double boiler, leaving it to 
cook in the double boiler 20 to 25 minutes. 

(2) The butter may be melted in a small stew pan, the flour gradually blended, 
being careful not to let browning occur; then the milk, which has been heated in the 
double boiler, may be added, slowly blending; then all returned to the double boiler and 
heated 20 to 25 minutes. 

(3) The butter is added to the greater proportion of the milk, in the double boiler. 
The flour is stirred into a smooth paste in a small portion of the cold milk which has been 
reserved, and this mixture added slowly and with constant stirring to the hot milk in the 
double boiler. Heat this 20 to 25 minutes. 

Under what circumstances might each of these methods be best? 



Compare the sauces, hot and cold, and conclude in what way each amount of thick- 
ening would be useful. 
Practical Uses for White Sauce: 

Milk Soups. 

Experiment 22. Using a very thin white sauce. 
1. Cocoa (a). 

Recipe : 

% c milk 
2 t cocoa 



2 T boiling water 
2 t sugar 



Manipulation : Heat the milk in a double boiler. To the cocoa and sugar add grad- 
ually, the hot water, and stir until they boil. When smooth and thickened, add part of the 
hot milk, slowly, until well blended. Return all to the double boiler and keep hot until 
ready to serve. Mill briskly with Dover egg beater before serving. 



65 



Cocoa (b). 

Make as above adding 1 t of corn starch to the watery mixture. 

Compare the two as to consistency. 

This serves 1 person. Formulate recipe for 6. 

How many will 1 qt. of milk serve? 

Formulate recipe with that as basis and compute cost. 

2. Chocolate (a). 
Recipe : 

2-3 c milk 1 t corn starch 

% square of chocolate 2 t sugar. 

3 T hot water Dash of salt 

Manipulation : Heat the milk in a double boiler. Cook corn starch in hot water, 
add the sugar and lump of chocolate and salt. Let chocolate melt, and the mixture blend 
and thicken by boiling. Stir constantly. When smooth add slowly some of the hot milk 
until a thoroughly blended mixture is produced. Return the mixture to the double boiler 
to keep hot. Mill with Dover egg beater before serving. 

Chocolate (b). 

Make the same recipt- leaving ou, the corn starch. 
Which is the nicer product? 



Figure recipe for 6. 



Figure recipe based on 1 qt. of milk and compute cost. 



How many will it serve t 

66 



Note I. Chocolate and cocoa are made from the cocoa bean and contain starch and should 
therefore be subjected to boiling or to long cooking to break up the starch grain. The addition of 
corn starch gives body to the product. Chocolate or cocoa are more attractive when served with a 
spoonful of whipped cream or a marshmallow floating on the surface. A few drops of vanilla is 
thought by many to add to the flavor. 

Note 2. All cream (milk) soups should be vigorously milled by an egg beater just before 
serving. This breaks up the "skin" or albumen formed on the top of the milk and leaves in its place 
a light foamy surface very attractive. 

Cream Vegetable Soups 

Experiment 23. Using a Thin White Sauce. 

3. Potato Soup. 
Recipe : 

1 potato (medium size or y 2 t salt 

smaller) Celery salt 

1 c milk Pepper 

1 T butter 1 T chopped parsley 

1 t flour 
Manipulation : Cook potato in boiling salted water; when soft rub it through 
a sieve. Heat the milk with slice of opion in it, adding to it the butter and flour by any 
one of the three methods used for white sauce. When the white sauce is cooked, remove 
the onion and add the white sauce slowly to the hot, fine potato, blending thoroughly. 
Return to double boiler to keep hot; add parsley and other seasonings. The white sauce 
is made very thin because the potato is starchy and has great thickening power. 

4. Cream of vegetable soup may be made after the same recipe from any vege- 
table. Using equal measure of milk and vegetable, cook the vegetable to boiling, and rub 
it through a sieve to remove hulls and skins. Peas, beans, corn, lentils, like the potato, 
need a thin white sauce. For celery, cabbage and vegetables with less thickening power, 
1 T of flour may be used to 1 c of milk. Omit the onion in these soups. 

Experiment 24. Using a Thin White Sauce. 

5. Tomato soup. 

(This requires special manipulation because of the acidity of the tomato and it 
requires more thickening also because of the consistency of the tomato itself.) 



Recipe 

Part I. Make into a white sauce 



1 c milk 

1 T flour 

2 T butter Part II. Cook and run through a 
Y2 t salt sieve 

Pepper 



1 c tomato 
V2 t sugar 
1 slice of 

onion 
Vg t soda 



Manipulation: Have both parts hot, then add soda to tomato and stir until effer- 
vescence ceases. Pour the tomato slowly into the milk sauce, stirring constantly with fork 
or wire egg beater. 

Serve at once. Do not reheat. 



Why add tomato to milk rather than the reverse? 



Why stir? 



Why use soda ? 



67 



Why not reheat? 



Why serve at once? 



Why make milk soups? 



When should they be served? 



With bread and butter, and some fruit for desert, a cream soup in sufficient quan- 
tity will make a well-balanced and wholesome meal. 



68 



THIRTEENTH LESSON. 

Experiment 25. — Milk Used in Frozen Dishes 

A— Milk Sherbet. 

I./ IV2 c sugar II. r 

Mix( juice of 3 lemons Chilli 1 qt milk 

in] 
Freezer 

III. When milk is cold enough to begin freezing, slowly add the mixture I., 
stirring constantly until blended, and freeze. 
How is this mixture like tomato soup ? 



What did we add to tomato soup, not used in this dish, to help prevent curdling? 



What advantage is it to have the milk very cold? 



Why stir constantly while adding the lemon juice? 



B. — Ice Cream or Frozen Custard. 



I. 


f 2 c milk 


II. 


' 1 


Blend and 


1 t corn starch 


Add to I 


egg 


Cook in 


1 c sugar 


after 30 min. and 


beaten 


Double Boiler 


Vs t salt 


cook 5 min. longer, 


smooth 


for 30 min. 




stir constantly 





III. 

When the custard is 1 qt. thin cream 
cool, add 2 T of Vanilla 

P7. Strain, and freeze. 

V. For "Frozen Pudding" add 1 to 2 cups of candied fruit or preserves and 
chopped nuts. 



69 



Experiment 26. — Frozen Cream. 

A. — Philadelphia lee Cream. 
I. 1 qt thin scalded cream 



Add 

II. 

and 

freeze 
slowly 



% c sugar 
dash of salt 
1 T vanilla 



B. — Mousse. 

I. 

Whip 

until 

stiff 



1 pt. cold 
thick cream 



II. 

Add 



1 T vanilla 
Yi c sugar 



III. Mix with egg beater, pack in freezer of small diameter, or in sanitary 
glass freezer, or in cocoa cans with paraffine applied around the edge of 
the lid. Pack in ice and salt mixture for 3 or 4 hours. This may be 
packed in the fireless cooker. 

To either of the above may be added preserves, sweetened fruit pulp, or nuts 
and candied fruit to the amount of % the measure of cream used. 



70 



71 



72 



FOURTEENTH LESSON. 

EGGS. 

References : 

Human Foods, by Harry Snyder. 

Chapter VIII (Portion on Eggs). 
Farmers' Bulletins: 

128— Eggs and Their Use as Food. 
87— (E. S. W. 8, p. 24) Food Value of Hen's Eggs. 
353_(E. S. W. 50, p. 14) Preservation of Eggs. 
273— (E. S. W. 38, p. 17) Preserving Eggs. 
103— (E. S. W. 11, p. 17) Preserving Eggs in Water Glass. 



Composition 
















Eggs Refuse Water Protein 


Fat Carbohydrates Ash 


Fuel Value per lb. 
Calories 


As purchased 
Edible portion 
Egg white (boiled) 
Egg yolk (boiled) 


11.2 


65.5 
73.3 
86.2 
49.5 


11.9 
13.4 
12.3 
15.7 


9.3 

10.5 

.2 

33.3 




.9 
1.0 

.6 
1.1 


635 

720 

250 

1705 



For graphic illustration of composition, see Dr. Langworthy's IllustratedChart. 
What nutrient is lacking in eggs, according to the table of composition? 



2 eggs 

Nitric acid 

Ammonia 

Iodine 

Fehling's solution 



Experiment 27. — Composition. 

Utensils and supplies: 

Double boiler 

Evaporating dish 

6 Test tubes 

2 Test tube holders 

Flame 

Funnel 

Filter paper 
Procedure : 

1. Beat an egg thoroughly. Remove 1 T to an evaporating dish. Heat the 

remainder slowly in a double boiler, stirring constantly; when thickened, 
remove to filter and strain. Is there any evidence of water in the egg? 

2. Burn the egg in the evaporating dish to whiteness, as you did the milk. Do 
you find mineral substance? 

3. Separate the white and yolk of an egg, beat each slightly until it will pour. 

Place about 2 c. c. of each in separate test tubes; test both white and yolk 
for protein. (See test of milk for same.) 

4. In clean test tubes: 

Test for carbohydrate 
(a) With iodine. Any starch? 



(b) With Fehling's solution. Any sugar? 



List the food constituents found by you in egg. 



73 



Was any constituent lacking 1 What ? 

What is the use of that constituent in the body? 



The egg is body, bone, food, and raiment, for a possible chick. 

How is the fuel constituent provided in the egg for the growing chick? 



See Langworthy chart. How does proportion of fat in egg compare with that in 

Do you know the offices of the different portions of the egg in the growths of the 

The shell? 

The skin inside the shell? 

The white? 

The little speck near the yolk? 

The yolk itself? 

These questions of interest would constitute a number of very interesting lessons 
for us in Biology — which do not belong just here, but which are worthy of our thought and 
investigations as side lessons. 

At least we are ready now to believe that the egg, like milk, is a perfect food for an 
infant animal organism. 



milk? 
chick? 



74 



FIFTEENTH LESSON. 

PROPERTIES OF EGGS. 

Experiment 28. — I. Viscosity. 
Utensils and supplies: 

3 bowls or small plates 1 egg 

Egg beaters % t butter 

Procedure : 

(1) Make small hole in end of egg shell. Let white run out slowly. Note the 
stretchy, ropy, consistency of the white. 

(2) Separate the white from the yolk of an egg. 

(3) Divide the white into two parts, in separate dishes. 

(4) Add Yz t of melted butter to one dish of the white. Mix it thoroughly. 

(5) Label yolk (a) ; white containing fat (b) ; white without fat (c). 

(6) Beat (a), (b), (c) with egg beaters. Observe results and compare. 

How do you explain the fact that (a) and (b) do not retain air when beaten and 
that (e) does so? 



Look at Langworthy illustrated chart. 

Observe and compare the composition of egg white and egg yolk. What is the dif- 
ference in fat content? 



What constituent did you add to (b) ? 



Conclusion ? 



75 



Practical application: 



Experiment 29 The viscous property of egg employed in leavening. 



A. — Omelet. 






Utensils : 






Small dish 




Recipe : 


Plate 




1 egg 


Egg beater 




1 T water or milk 


Frying pan 




% t salt 


Asbestos mat 




% t butter 


Flame 




Pepper 


Oven (if convenient) 





Manipulation: Separate yolks from whites. Beat yolks until thick and lemon 
colored ; add salt, pepper and hot water. Beat whites until stiff and dry, 
cutting and folding carefully into the first mixture. Heat omelet pan, put 
butter in it and grease both sides and bottom. Turn in the mixture and 
cook slowly on top of the stove until the omelet is puffed and a light brown 
underneath. Place pan in oven and leave until omelt is firm to the touch 
when pressed by the finger. Fold and turn on a hot plate to serve. Jelly, 
fruit, bacon, minced ham or panned oysters may be served with an omelet. 

"What made the white of egg froth? 



What makes the omelet rise when heated? 



What keeps the air in? 

B.— Bird's Nest. 

Separate white and yolk of egg. Beat white to stiff froth, adding % t salt. 
Pile white on light brown buttered toast. Drop yolk on white, salt and 
pepper. Put in a moderate oven until white sets — about 2 minutes. Gar- 
nish with parsley. Serve hot. 



1. Coagulation Temperatures 

Experiment 30 II. Coagulation by heat. 

Utensils and supplies: 

Stew pan Egg 

2 Test tubes Water 

Thermometer 
Test tube holder 

Procedure : 

To determine temperature at which white and yolk of eggs coagulate. 

76 



(a) Pour some of white of egg into a test tube, using enough to cover the bulb 
of the thermometer. Suspend the test tube in a pan of cold water which 
is to be heated. Do not let the test tube touch the dish nor let the ther- 
mometer bulb rest on the test tube. Heat the water slowly. Note and 
record : 

1. Temperature at which coagulation appears. 

2. Temperature at which coagulation is complete. 

3. Consistency after water has reached boiling point. 

(b) Make similar test with yolk of the egg. 



Material Temperature when 
coagulation appears 



Temperature when 
coagulation is complete 



Consistency of egg when 
water is at boiling point 



White 
Yolk 



Conclusions : 

Does white or yolk of egg coagulate at the lower temperature? 

Does egg coagulate at a high or low temperature according to our scale in Ex- 
periment 3? 

What do you conclude as to the temperature to be employed in egg cooking, 
high or low? 

Boiling or below boiling? 

11. Hard and Soft Cooking of Eggs. 

Utensils and supplies: 

4 stew pans and lids 9 eggs 

Procedure : 

(1) Put 2 eggs into 2 cups cold water and remove 1 egg just as water boils. 

Remove the second egg after 3 minutes. 
Turn them into dishes and compare. 



(2) Put 2 eggs into boiling water, remove at 3 and 10 minutes respectively. 
Compare. 



(3) Put 3 eggs in 3 cups boiling water. Cover sauce pan and remove from 
stove. Remove and examine an egg at end of 3, 8 and 10 minutes, respec 
tively. 

77 



(4) Put 1 egg in boiling water and let it boil 10 minutes. Place another iD 
boiling water and push to back of stove where only steaming may be main- 
tained for 45 minutes. Remove and examine. Cut through whites. Com- 
pare and note differences. 



Conclusion : 

Which eggs are preferable and why? 



What seems to be the effect of high temperature upon the albumin of the egg 
white ? 



How does this relate to the thermometer test made in test tube ? 



How does this relate to the effect of heat in making cottage cheese? 



What points of similarity between egg and milk cookery. Why? 



78 



What is the effect of heat upon proteins? 



Application : 

Care of Eggs: Wash eggs as soon as brought from market; keep in a cool 
place. 

Handle eggs carefully so that membranes about yolk will not be broken. 
Break eggs with one blow. 

The left-over yolk of an egg, if unbroken, may be kept from hardening by cov- 
ering it with cold water or with paraffin paper. 

Experiment 31 — Egg cookery. 

A.— Coddled Eggs. 

Put 1 pt. of water into a sauce pan. When it boils, remove the sauce pan to 
the side of the stove where boiling will not continue. Put into this one 
washed egg, cover the pan and let it stand 5 to 10 minutes, according to 
consistency desired. Multiply quantity of water according to the number 
of eggs to be cooked. Break into hot cups and serve. 

B. — Hard cooked eggs. 

Proceed as in A, keeping the water at such place ou the stove that the steaming 
temperature may be maintained, and leave the eggs in the water for 45 
minutes. Use for salads, garnishes, or deviled eggs. 

C. — Poached egg. 

1 egg Salt 

1 slice of toast Butter 

Parsley 

Have a shallow pan full of boiling water. Butter a muffin ring and set it in the 

water. Break egg onto a saucer and slip it into the muffin ring. Remove pan to a place on 

the stove where boiling will cease ; cover it and let it stand until a film forms over the eggs — 

4 to 5 minutes — lift the egg and ring from the pan with a flat skimmer and slip it onto hot 

buttered toast; salt, pepper, garnish with parsley, and serve hot. 

Experiment 32 III. The Thickening Power of Egg. 



1. Soft Custards. 




Utensils and supplies: 


Eggs 


Double boilers 


Milk 


Egg beaters 


Sugar _ 


Spoons 


Flavoring 


Dishes 





79 



Recipe : 



Milk 


Eggs 


Sugar 


Consistency 


Use? 


1 c 


1 








2-3 c 


1 








2-3 c 


1 yolk 








1-3 c 


1 yolk 








2-3 c 


1 white 









Manipulation : Beat the egg until well mixed and smooth, add the milk and sugar 
and mix well. Cook in double boiler; stir constantly until the mixture thickens and slips 
from the spoon. 

Why stir? 



custards ? 



Record in above table consistency and possible use. 

What is the effect of the egg in this mixture? 

What food principles are present and how will they affect the method of preparing 



Will you take special care to beat the egg very light or not? Why? 



80 



If your custard is a failure when done, what is its condition? 



Can this be remedied? How? 



Example: Take a custard which, because of overheating, has separated (become 
watery). Place it in a bowl and beat it with an egg beater. Result. 



"What has happened? 



Try beating clabbered milk. Result? 



Do you recall the method used in putting your tomato soup together? 



How do all of these compare ? 



81 



Conclusions : 



Applications : 




I. Baked Custards. 




Utensils and supplies: 




Ramequin 


Eggs 


Egg beater 


Milk 


Spoon 


Sugar 


Cups 


Nutmeg 


Large dripping pan 


Hot water 



Use proportions found in previous experiment and cook custard in the oven until 
firm in center. "Will you prepare the mixture differently from that of the previous experi- 
ment ? 



Should the oven tempeature be high or low? 



How will you manage the cooking of this mixture in the oven? (Set the custard 
in a pan of water while baking. It is nice to bake the custards in individual cups, setting 
ell the cups in one large pan of water.) 



82 



Why are custard pies and meringues on top of pies often watery ? 



2. Floating Island. 

Use recipe for soft custard ; separate whites and yolks. Make a thin, soft custard 
using the yolks for thickening. Add flavoring. Cook in top of double boiler. Beat whites 
to a stiff froth, sweeten with 2 T sugar. Flavor with vanilla or lemon juice. When custard 
is thickened, pile white in on top of soft custard, cover closely and leave 2 min. Then with 
a knife loosen the meringue from the sides of the double boiler, pour custard into serving 
dish, and the puffy, cooked meringue will float on top. 

3. Original Recipe: 

Experiment 33. — Cooked Salad Dressing. 

With what you know of the thickening power of egg and what you know of the 
effect of acid upon milk, compose a recipe and indicate the proper manipulation for making 
a cooked salad dressing. 

Do we want salad dressings tart? 
Why? 



Utensils and supplies: 



Recipe : 



83 



Manipulation : 



Class display salad dressing in dishes, compare as to consistency, color, flavor. 



Conclusions as to results. 



Compare with a recipe given in some recipe book as to ingredients. 



Application : 

Use on a salad: Potato, cabbage or diced fruits. 



84 



SIXTEENTH LESSON. 

Cheese 

References : 

Human Foods, by Snyder. 

Chapter VII.— Milk and Dairy Products. 
Farmers' Bulletins: 

166 — Cheese Making on the Farm. 

487 — Cheese and Its Economical Use in the Diet. 
Composition— See Milk and Langworthy Charts. 

Experiment 34. —Effect of heat upon cheese. 

Utensils and supplies: 

Frying pan 1 oz. cheese 

Double boiler 
Procedure : . 

(a) Take a piece of cheese and place it in a hot frying pan, turning it several times. 

(b) Place a piece of cheese in a double boiler and melt it slowly. Compare (a) 
and (b). Explain what has happened. 



What is the constituent lost in the "frying" of the cheese? 



What is the constituent which became tough and stringy? 



Conclusions. 



*Notfi. The lesson on cheese is placed following eggs instead of milk because the dish used 
as an illustrative practical application employs eggs, and is one in which the egg must be carefully dealt 
with. 



85 



Practical Application. 

Experiment 35. — Welsh Rarebit. 

Utensils : 
Double boiler 
Tablespoon 
Teaspoon 

(to serve eight) : 
T butter 
lb. cheese 
egg or 
yolks 



Knife 

Egg beater 
Plate 



Recipe 
1 

% 
i 

2 



y 2 c of cream or milk 



V-2 



t "Worcestershire sauce 
t salt 



y± t soda 



A few grains of paprika 



Manipulation : Put butter in a double boiler, let it melt, then add the cheese, grated 
or cut fine, and stir until cheese is melted ; add soda and other seasonings ; stir in the eggs 
diluted with the milk; stir until smooth and creamy. Serve on toast or crackers. 

What temperature will you employ? 



Why ? 



86 



87 



SEVENTEENTH LESSON. 



MEATS. 

References : 

Human Foods, by Harry Snyder. Chapter VIII, Meats and Animal Pood Products. 
Farmers' Bulletins: 

391 — Economical Uses of Meat in the Home. 
183 — Meat on the Farm — Butchering, Curing and Keeping. 
34 — Meats — Composition and Cooking. 
85— Fish as Food. 
182— Poultry as a Food. 
162— (E. S. W. 21, p. 9) Cooking Meat. 
435— (E. S. W. 62, p. 32) Market Classes and Grades of Meat. 

Composition : 















Fuel Values 


Type 


Refuse 


Water Protein 


Fat 


Carbohydrate 


Mineral 


Per pound 
Calories 


Beef 
















Round 




64.4 












Lean 


8.1 


54.0 


19.5 


7.3 




1.0 


670 


Fat 


12.0 


52.9 


17.5 


16.1 




0.8 


1005 


Loin 


13.3 


46.8 


16.4 


16.9 




0.9 


1020 


Shoulder 


22.1 




13.7 


17.1 




0.7 


975 


Pork 
















Ham 




45.1 












Fresh 


10.3 


35.8 


14.3 


29.7 




0.8 


1520 


Smoked 


12.2 




14.5 


33.2 




4.2 


1670 


Bacon 
















Smoked 


8.7 


18.4 


9.5 


59.4 4.5 


2685 



For graphic illustration of composition see Langworthy's Illustrated Food Charts 
and for further information see Government Bulletin 28 — Chemical Composition of American 
Food Materials. 

Experiment 36. — Showing Composition. 
1. Presence of water and ash. 

Utensils and supplies : 

Frying pan 

Evaporating dish 

Flame 
Procedure : 

(a) Take a piece of lean beef 



slice of bacon 
slice of fat beef 
oz. lean beef 
slice of fat pork 



2 in. square; heat it slightly in a frying pan; 



observe steam. Squeeze it and note quantity of juice, liquid. 



(b) Place a small portion of this piece in the porcelain evaporating dish. Heat 
to burning. Burn to blackness; continue burning until only white ash 
remains. 

2. Presence of fat. 
Observe fat portions : 

(b) In bacon 
(a) In beef j Try the fat out of each in a frying pan. 

(c) In side of pork J 

3. Test for protein : 
See utensils and procedure as directed in testing milk curd for protein. 
Take % t chopped lean beef. 
Add 2 c. c. water. 
Test for protein with nitric acid and ammonia. 



89 



4. Tests for carbohydrate: 

(a) Take meat as in (3) add 2 c. c. water and test with iodine for starch. 

(b) Take meat as in (3) add 2 c. c. of water and test with Fehling's solution for 
simple sugar. 

Note table of composition. Compare your results. 

5. Test of liver for sugar. 
Chop fine a small piece of liver. 
Test for simple sugar. Explain. 

See in Physiology text — The functions of the liver. 

Conclusion : 

"Water in meat? 

Ash in meat? 

Pat in meat? 

Protein in meat? 

Carbohydrates ? 

How does the composition of meat compare with articles previously studied? 

Look at Langworthy's food charts and compare with: 

Milk? 



Cheese ? 



Eggs? 



Compare in total solids (nutrients) the amount which can be purchased for 10 cents 
in milk, eggs, cheese, lean beef. 
Compare as to protein. 





Price 
per lb. 


To be had for 10 cents. 


Food stuff 


Oz. Oz. Oz. Oz. Oz. Oz. Total Energy 
Total Mineral Protein Fat Carbohv. Solids Calories 


Milk 
Cheese 
Eggs 
Lean Beef 



















90 



EIGHTEENTH LESSON. 
Properties of Meat. 

Experiment 37 Effect of heat on solids in meat. 

Utensils and supplies: 

Frying pan Flame 

Scales Slice of bacon 

Procedure : 

Take a slice of bacon. Weigh. 



Cook it in a hot frying pan, turning frequently. 



Lift it from pan, letting it drip. Weigh. 



What has the meat lost? 



What per cent has it lost? 



What is the condition of the material lost? 



Let it cool. 



Condition after cooling? 



Conclusion : 



91 



Experiment 38. —Determining wherein the toughness of meat lies. 

Utensils and supplies: 

Plate Flame 

Knife 2 oz. lean beef 

Frying pan 

Procedure : 

Select a small piece of lean meat. Set aside one-third. With the back of a knife 
scrape out the soft part from the rest of the meat and form into a cake. 

Note tenderness. 



Observe fibrous portion noting: 
Color ; 



Elasticity ; 



Toughness. 



Cook in a hot frying pan samples (a) and (b) and the fibrous portion of (c) re- 
maining after (b) is removed. 



Compare these cooked samples and explain the differences in flavor and tender- 
ness. 



92 



Is any one of them tougher or more tender than before cooking? 



Experiment 39. — Determining wherein the flavor of meat lies. 
Utensils and supplies : W?P > 

Plate Thermometer 

Knife or meat grinder Cheese cloth 

Measuring cup Test tube 



Test tube holder 

Stew pan 

1 oz. lean meat 

"Water 



1. Procedure : 

Take 2 T of finely minced lean beef. 

(a) Form about 1 t into a little cake. 

(b) Stir the remainder up well with 14 c cold water. Let stand several minutes, 
then strain through cheese cloth. 

Add a second portion of water and strain. Repeat until meat has lost its color. 
Place some of the watery solution in a test tube and heat by holding test tube in pan 
of cold water, allowing the water to heat gradually. 



Note carefully the temperatures at which : 
1. Small white flakes begin to appear. 



2. Heavy precipitate appears. 



3. The red color disappears. 



4. Filter and taste the broth filtered off. Flavor? 



(c) Make a little cake of the washed meat as (a). Compare the little cakes as 
when cooked as to flavor. 



5. Filter the heated solution. 



6. What remains on filter? (Albumin plus haemoglobin containing iron.) 



7. Taste filtrate. (Liquid in bottle below.) 



8. Compare flavor with that of washed meat: 

93 



Where is the flavor of meat located ? 



9. "What is the result of washing meat? 



10. "What is the red of meat juice? (Iron plus oxygen, carried in a protein 
called haemoglobin. See Physiology ; red blood corpuscles.) 



11. What is beef tea? 



Beef extract? 



Beef broth? 



Soup? 



12. What difference between these and beef juice? 



94 



2. Procedure : 

Take a piece of round steak, about 3 in. square. Heat it quickly on both sides in 
warm frying pan. Hold it over a bowl and squeeze it. Reheat and squeeze again. The red 
juice in the bowl is beef juice. 

What foods does it contain? 



Taste it. 



Taste the meat from ifHich the juice was squeezed. 



Conclusion : 

Where does the flavor of meat lie ? 



Experiment 40. — Methods for retaining the juices of meats. 
Utensils and supplies: 

2 double boilers 2 pieces of lean beefsteak 

4 bowls (2 in. square and 

2 stew kettles % in. thick) 

Egg beater 4 chunks of beef for boiling 

Thermometer (4 oz. each.) 

Procedure : 

I. Cut two small pieces of lean beef steak, (1) and (2). 

95 



1. Quickly sear over the surface in a very hot pan, then reduce heat until the meat 
is cooked. Turn it frequently. Do not pierce it with a fork. 



2. Put meat into a cold pan (not the same papn used for (1)). Heat graduually. 
Cook slowly. 

Observations : 

What change of color takes place at once in (1) ? 



The material which turns white with heat is albumin, a protein. Recall the effect 
of heat upon the albumin of the egg. 

Cut through both pieces of meat. 

Which is toughest? 

Taste both. Flavor of each? 



Squeeze each piece. Which has most juice? Why? 



Observe the frying pans. Which contains most juice cooked fast? Why? 



96 



Pour y± c of water into each pan, heat it, observe color and flavor. 



Where is the juice of the meat which was cooked in the hot pan? 



Of that cooked in the cold pan? 



Where should we want the flavor to be? 



How may this be accomplished? 



97 



II. Have four pieces of lean, very fibrous meat as nearly as possible the same 
shape and size— about 4 oz. each. Number your cooking utensils, a, b, c, d. 

(a) Double boiler; put the meat in the top compartment over hot water, add 1 c 
of boiling water, cover, and cook for i hours. 



(b) Double boiler; sear the meat in a hot frying pan, then put it into the top com- 
partment of the double boiler, add no water, cover it, and cook over boiling water for 4 
hours. 

Remove both pieces. 

Observe and taste both. 

Cut meat and taste the meat. Are t here any differences? 

What? 



III. (c) Small kettle; add the meat, cover it with boiling water and boil for 
4 hours. 



98 



(d) Small kettle; add the meat, cover it with cold water and let it stand simmering 
slowly at the back of the stove for 4 hours. 

Compare at the end of the cooking process (a), (b), (c), (d). 

(1) Which piece of meat falls apai't most readily? 



(2) Which piece of meat has best flavor? 



(3) Which piece of meat has least flavor? 



(4) Which broth will make the best soup? 



(5) Fill jelly glasses i/ 2 full of broth from (a), (b), (c) and (d) ; label them; 
set them where they will get cold. 



Do any of them get solid? 



Does the solid broth come from the tenderest or the toughest piece of meat? 



99 



IV. Take two bowls; label them (e) and (f). Into (e) put 1 1 of Knox Gelatin 
and add to it 2 T of cold water. Let it soak % hour. At the end of the time, into (f ) put 1 1 
of Knox Gelatin. Into each bowl (e) and (f) pour y 2 e of boiling water. Take the tem- 
perature at once in each bowl. 

Observations : 

What happened in (e) ? 



"What happened in (f ) 1 



Temperature in (e) 1 
Temperature in (f ) 1 



Gelatin and glue are packing house by-products and are made by dissolving out the 
connective tissue in the tougher leg and foot portions of beef and veal. 

Set both dishes aside to get cold. When the gelatin in (e) is cool and begins to 
stiffen, beat it with a Dover egg beater. Eesult? 



Try the same experiment on (a) and on (d). Results? 



100 



Conclusions : 

The toughness of meat lies where? 



The flavor of meat is found where? 



The materials dissolved from meat by washing are what? 



Should meat be washed? 



The use of albumin in searing meat? 



At what temperature does albumin harden? 



Compare with egg and milk. 



101 



At what temperature does the color leave meat? 



At what temperature does gelatin dissolve? 



At what temperature does the connective tissue in meat dissolve? 



Method of cooking meat to retain juices? 



To dissolve connective tissue and secure tenderness? 



102 



103 



104 



NINETEENTH LESSON. 

Make outline drawings of the various animals used for meat. 

See Farmers' Bulletin No. 34. Meats: Their Composition and Cooking. 

Let your drawing fill upper half of page. 

Outline various meat cuts and number them. 

In the lower half of the page list the numbers and record the market name, leav- 
ing four vacant spaces for additional records. 

With the teacher the class should make a trip to the meat market and observe the 
cutting up of a beef and other meats. 

The drawings should be taken on this trip and the records made of prices, tough- 
ness or tenderness and uses for various cuts. 

At the following class period the methods for cooking the various cuts can be dis- 
cussed, after which the drawings and complete) table may be inserted in the note book fol- 
lowing this page. 

See model page following: 



105 



Outline of Animal 
on hoof. 



Outline of Animal 
As hung after butchering. 



Record of cuts: 



No. 



Name of Cut 



Price 
per lb. 



Refuse, 
Much or little 



Meat 
Tough or tender 



Uses for cut 



Methods of 
Cooking 



106 



107 



108 



TWENTIETH LESSON. 

Practical Applications : 

Care of Fresh Meat : 

Meat should be removed from the paper as soon as it comes from the market and 
put on a porcelain dish. Wipe the meat off with a damp cloth. Would you put it in a pan 
of water to wash it? Why? 



Experiment 41. — Cooking the Tender Cuts of Meat. , i 

1. Broiled Steak: 

Steak for broiling should be 1 in. to 2 in. thick. Wipe with a damp cloth and 
cook in a toasting rack over a clear fire, turning frequently at first, and reducing tempera- 
ture toward the end of the process. The thickness of the steak and the degree of cooking 
desired determine the length of time for cooking — 7 or 8, 15 or 20 minutes. Put on a hot 
platter, add pepper and salt and butter. Garnish with parsley and sliced lemon. 

2. Pan Broiled Steak: 

In case a broiler is lacking or a suitable fire for broiling, heat a filing pan very 
hot, but use no grease in it. Sear meat on both sides and finish cooking at a somewhat lower 
temperature. Mushrooms or bananas may be sauted in the drippings and served with the 
steak as garnish. 

3. Beef Roast : 

Trim and wipe off meat, place on a rack in the roasting pan, skin side down. Place 
meat in a hot oven 480 to 490 degrees F., after 15 or 20 minutes reduce the heat to 365 or 
375 degrees F. and allow 15 or 20 minutes per pound of meat, according to shape of cut and 
whether it is desired rare or well done. Garnish with parsley and lemon. 

What cuts of meat are suitable for the above processes? 



113 



Sauces for Meats and Fis h 
Maitre 'd Hotel Sauce. 

%c butter 2 T chopped parsley 2 T lemon juice 

Cream the butter. Add lemon juice slowly until thoroughly blended, then add 
parsley. Cool, and serve on beef loaf, Hamburg steak or fish. 

Tartar Sauce. 

1 c Mayonnaise dressing % e chopped pimento 

% c chopped pickle *4 c chopped olives 

Mix all together and serve with boiled or steamed fish. The seasonings may be 
added to the butter sauce instead of the mayonnaise if desired. 

Hollandaise Sauce. 

% c butter 14 t salt Juice of V 2 lemon 

Yolks of 2 eggs y 2 c boiling water Cayenne pepper 

Cream the butter, add the beaten yolks of eggs, blending thoroughly ; add season- 
ings and water. Cook in a double boiler, stirring constantly until the sauce thickens. Re- 
move from the fire and add the lemon juice. Serve with fish. 

Tomato Sauce. 

1 pt. tomatoes Pepper 14 * celery salt 

2 T butter 2 cloves Salt 
2 T flour A sprig of thyme 

Heat the tomato with seasonings. Then make a sauce of butter, flour and tomato. 
Strain and serve hot with croquettes or beef loaf or fish. 



114 



115 



Experiment 42. Cooking the Tougher Cuts of Meat. 

1. Hamburger Steak. 
Recipe : 

2 lb. lean beef 1 egg 1 T salt 

1 T lemon juice y 2 T onion juice % T pepper 

1 T parsley 2 T melted butter 

Manipulation: Chop or grind meat, add other ingredients, shape into small cakes 
and sear in hot frying pan with a little fat, lowering temperature after searing process, and 
continuing the cooking slowly. Serve with a suitable meat sauce. 

2. Brown Stew. 

Cut lean beef into cubes, season each piece with salt, dredge with flour and brown 
in a little suet in a hot frying pan. Add sufficient hot water to cover the meat and allow 
this to cook in a double boiler 2 or 3 hours. During the last half hour of the cooking, 
diced vegetables of various sorts may be added to give the desired flavor. 

What cuts of meat would you choose for a stew, beef loaf, and for Hamburg 
steak ? 



Why? 



116 



3. Brown Soup Stock. 

6 lb. shank of beef .1 sprig of marjoram 

3 qts. cold water 3 sprigs parsley 

12 pepper-corns Carrot i 

6 cloves Turnip \ 2 c each 

1 small bay leaf Potato [ cut in dice 

3 sprigs thyme Celery J 

1 T salt 1 onion 

Wipe beef, and cut in inch cubes. Brown 1-3 of meat in hot frying pan in marrow 
from bone. Put remaining 2-3 with bone and fat in soup kettle, add water and let stand 
30 minutes. Add the browned meat and heat gradually to the boiling point. Cover and 
cook slowly about 6 hours, being careful to keep it always below the boiling point. Add 
vegetables and seasonings. Cook y 2 hour, strain and cool. "When cold, lift off layer of 
fat from top. You have left a rich, brown soup stock, which may be served as a plain 
bouillon or used as the basis for various soups and gravies. 

4. Use of Soup Stock. 

Tomato Soup. 

1 qt. brown soup stock 3 cloves 

1 can tomatoes 3 sprigs thyme 

4 T butter */4 c celery 

5 T flour Pepper and salt 

Make a sauce of butter, flour and tomatoes. Add all the seasonings and cook for 
10 or 15 minutes, then strain tomato and add to the soup stock. Serve garnished with 
whipped cream. 

5. Bepf Croquettes (From meat left from soup making). 

1 c cold ground meat 1 T onion juice 

Salt ' t "Worcestershire sauce 

Pepper 2 T bread crumbs 

Yolk of 1 egg 1 T melted butter 

Add the ingredients to the meat. Shape into croquettes. Roll in flour, egg and 
crumbs. Pry in deep fat and serve with tomato sauce. 

6. Pot Roast. 

3 lbs. beef round (a thick chunk) 4 cloves 

Flour 3 c boiling water 

2 slices fat salt pork % c each diced carrots, onions, turnips, 
9 pepper corns celery 

y 2 bay leaf Pepper 

Salt 

Try out pork and remove scraps. "Wipe meat, skewer and tie in compact form, 
dredge with flour and brown entire surface in pork fat. Place on rack in pot, surround 
with vegetables and spices and 1 c boiling water. Season with salt and pepper. Cover 
closely. Simmer 4 hours. Turn once during the cooking. Strain liquor in pot, and serve 
as sauce. 

7. French Stew. 

2 to 4 lb. second round ( ; peppers 

3 oz. suet I T horseradish 
1 large onion 1 bay leaf 

6 cloves 1 c tomatoes 

The meat should be 3 inches thick. Try out the suet in kettle or roasting pan. Sear 
the meat on all sides in the hot fat, until weil-browned, then slice over it the onion, later 
adding other seasonings and last the tomato. Cover the vessel and let the stew simmer 
for 4 or 5 hours. Do not let it boil. The meat should become so tender as to almost fall 
to pieces. Lift carefully to a platter, leaving the seasonings as garnish. Serve with the 
rich sauce which surrounds it. 

117 



TWENTY-FIRST LESSON. 

Gelatine. 
Experiment 43. White Soup Stock. 

3 lb. knuckle of veal 1 t salt 1 onion 

2V:> qt. cold water % t pepper-corn 2 stalks celery- 

Cut meat in small pieces. Put meat, bone, water, and seasonings into a kettle. 
Heat gradually to the boiling point, skim, simmer 4 or 5 hours and strain. If it is cloudy, 
clear as directed below: 

To ont qt. of stock use the white and the shell of 1 egg, or one whole egg. Re- 
move fat from top of cold stock and put it in a stew pan. Beat the white slightly and 
add it and the shell to the stock. Stir const iil it boils. Set aside for a few min- 

utes. Strain. 

(If the shell of the egg is not used, the residue from straining may be used in cro- 
quettes or bash.) 

What is the nature of your soup sto er it cools? 



Explain. 



What can you say of its nutritive value? Refer back to Experiment 34 in meats, 
"Effect of Heat upon Connective Tissue." 



Recall properties of: 



118 



Practical applications. 

Experiment 44. Uses of Gelatines. 

I. Asparagus Soup. 

3 c white stock Salt and pepper % c flour 

1 can asparagus y 2 e butter 2 c milk 

1 slice of onion 

Drain and rinse asparagus. Reserve tips ; add stalks to cold water ; boil five min- 
utes; drain; add stock and onion to asparagus; boil y 2 hour; rub through sieve; add butter 
and flour; cook together; add salt, pepper, milk and tips. 

II. Orange Je 

1 t Knox gelatine in 2 T cold 2 T lemon juice 

water c orange juice 

V2 c boiling water Part of grated orange rind 
6 T sugar 

Soak gelatine in cold water, add hot water and sugar. Strain. When cool add 
fruit juice and set away to chill. 

If jellies are to be molded, the molds should be wet with cold water. 

Jellies should be placed near the ico to harden, or may be hardened quickly by 
surrounding with ice water. 

Formulate recipe for 6 persons. 

III. Chocolate Bavarian Cream. 

1 T Knox gelatine in 1-3 c cold water G T sugar 
% c milk 2 squares chocolate 

1 t vanilla 2 c cream 

Soak gelatine in water, heat chocolate and milk and sugar. Add gelatine. When 
cool and beginning to thicken, add whipped cream. Mould and chill. 

Formulate recipe for 6 persons. 



119 



IV. Strawberry Sponge 

1 T Knox gelatine 1 c sugar 

4 T cold water Juice of 1 lemon 

4 T hot water Whites of 3 eggs 

1 c strawberry juice and pulp 

Soak gelatine in cold water and dissolve in hot water, add sugar and cool by stand- 
ing in a dish of ice. When beginning to thicken, add strawberry juice and beat until light, 
then add the stiffly beaten whites and continue beating until mixture will hold its shape. 
Pour into a mould and chill. Serve with whipped cream and whole strawberries. 

Experiment 45. Cost of Gelatine Dishes. 

Examine commercial brands of gelatine. Prepare % c of jelly from each kind and 
compare as to desirability and cost. 



120 



General Observations on Meats. 

1. Red meats may be served rare but the white meats are distasteful to us unless 
well done. Hence chicken, veal, mutton, pork should be well done. Cook to sear, and then 
slowly until thoroughly done. 

2. Sometimes pork and mutton contain undesirable parasites, which is an addi- 
tional reason for cooking them thoroughly. 

3. Poultry. 

Poultry, like other meats, should not be washed after cutting up, as the water 
extracts the flavors. After picking and singing, wash the fowl thoroughly on the outside, 
using soda and a rather rough cloth. Then remove the entrails and cleanse the inside thor- 
oughly by washing in cold water containing soda or salt. After it is thoroughly cleansed, 
outside and in, lay the fowl on a clean meat board or paper and cut it up. If it is not to 
be cooked for some time, wrap it in a clean cloth and put to cool. Do not soak it in 
water. The pieces may be dipped in milk before rolling in flour. Salt and pepper should 
be added to the flour. If the chicken is to be roasted, it should be salted inside, before 
stuffing. 

4. Cured Meats. 

Ham and Corned Beef. 

These meats should be cooked in as large portion as possible. Put them to cook 
in cold water. Let it reach the boiling point and drain off the water, thus removing some 
of the salt and flavor of other preservatives. Then cover with boiling water and cook at 
simmering temperature, cooking it about 20 minutes for each pound of weight. 

After the ham has been parboiled, it may be placed in the oven, the outside having 
been spread with brown sugar, and baked, basting it from time to time with water or sweet 
cider. 

Let cured meats cool in the broth they have been cooked in. Then remove, trim 
and slice them. 



125 



Proteins 

Discussion : The various proteins yield us the organic nitrogenous nutrients in our 
foods. They are found in both vegetable and animal foods. So far we have been dealing 
largely with the protein substances of animal foodstuffs — milk, eggs, meat, cheese, fish. 

The proteins we have met in this study are: 

Proteins : 

Of animal foods. 

1. Of milk. 

Casein — the curd, not soluble in water. Coagulated by acid or rennin. 
Albumin — soluble until coagulated by heat and then separating out. 

2. Of eggs. 

Albumin — egg white, soluble in water. Coagulated by heat. 
Vittelin — in egg yolk, not soluble in water. Coagulated by heat. 

3. Of meat. 

Myosin — muscle fibres; not soluble in water. Coagulated by heat. 
Albumin — soluble in water. Coagulated by heat. 
Gelatenoids— dissolved by hot water, hardened by high temperatures. 
Haemoglobin — red, soluble in water and found in the blood, coag- 
ulated by heat. 
Further we will meet with the proteins of vegetable foods in our bread, vege- 
tables and cereal foods. 

Proteins. 

Of vegetable foods. 

In all vegetables — albumin. 
In wheat. 

Glutenin l . , , „ „, 

Gliadin / m B luten of fl<rar 

Leucosin 
In corn. 

Zein 
In beans and peas. 

Legumin 

Phaseolin 

And others that it is not valuable for us to discuss further at this time. 
Proteins in Digestion and Metabolism. 

Proteins are the most complex of the nutrients, and while we can ascertain the exact 
chemical composition and chemical arrangement of carbohydrates and fats and write for 
them definite chemical formulae, we can write chemical formulae for very few proteins, and 
those the very simplest ones. 

We know that protein molecules are composed of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitro- 
gen, sulphur and sometimes phosphorus, but as to their exact arrangement or the amount 
of each element, in a molecule of protein, that has not yet been very completely determined. 

Proteins are essential in the diet as tissue builders, and it is estimated that an adult 
person needs from 75 grams to 100 grams (about 3 oz.) of protein per day in order to keep 
up body repair, while children need considerable protein in the diet in order to build up 
their growing bodies; in fact, they could not be growing bodies without the protein. 
Therefore, milk and eggs, with their fine balance of nutrients must form an important part 
of the diet of the young child, meat and cheese being added to the diet of older ones. 

There is no digestive action on prote-ins, in the mouth, except the physical one of 
grinding the material into small bits so that the digestive enzymes may be able to act 
readily upon them. In the stomach, the enzyme, pepsin, splits protein into proteoses and 
peptones; in the small intestines, the enzyme, trypsin, of the pancreatic juice splits pro- 
teins into proteoses, peptones, polypetids and • o acids; and the intestinal enzyme, erep- 
sin, splits peptones to amino acids and ammonia. 

From the walls of the intestines, these simple nitrogenous substances are absorbed 
into the circulation and eventually carried to the cells, where, by metabolism processes, they 
are reorganized and reformed into cell protein. The tissues secrete autolytic enzymes which 
have the power of splitting proteins to simpler substances and have the power to change 
cell protein into fuel and excretion products. 

129 



TWENTY-SECOND LESSON. 

Fats 

References : 

Human Foods, by Harry Snyder. 

Chapter VII — Composition, Digestibility, Adulteration of Butter. 
Farmers' Bulletin 131 — Household Tests for Detection of Oleomargarine and 

Renovated Butter. 

Composition. 

Chemical: Carbon plus Hydrogen plus Oxygen. 

Percentage Composition and Fuel Value of Common Household Fats: 





Refuse | Water 


Protein 


Fat 


Carbohydrates 


Ash 


Fuel Value, per 
pound calories 


Butter 





11.0 


1.0 


85.0 
100.0 

81.8 
100.0 
100.0 




3.0 


3605 


Lard (Refined) 




4220 


Suet (as purchased) 
Olive Oil 




13.7 


4.7 




0.3 


3540 




4000 


Cotton Oil 












4000 



Experiment 46. — Composition and Burning. 

Utensils and supplies: 

Sauce dish Flame 1 t Olive oil or cotton oil 

Teaspoon Strip of cotton cloth 1 oz. tallow 

Procedure : 

I. Place 1 t of olive or cotton oil in a sauce dish. Touch it with a match and 
Bee if it will burn. 

II. Lay a string of cotton cloth in a dish of oil or lard, with the end protruding 
beyond the fat % to 1 in. Light the cloth. Watch the fat creep up the cloth fibers and 
finally burn. Observe the colors in the flame. (The blue portion is the burning hydrogen. 
The red is glowing carbon.) 

III. Take one cup of lard, cotolene, olive oil, or rendered suet, place it in a small 
kettle over a low flame. Let it heat slowly. 

Note: (a) The appearance; 

(b) The effect upon a piece of bread; 

(c) Watch carefully for the first faint blue smoke; 

(d) Take temperatures. 



Temperature 


Appearance of Fat 




°C 


op 


Appearance of Bread 


100 


212 






125 


257 






150 


302 






175 


347 






200 


392 






225 


437 






250 


482 






275 


527 






300 


572 







130 



At what temperature did you observe a faint blue smoke passing off from the heated 
fat? 

What caused this blue color? 



"Would the composition of the fat be the same after this had continued any length 
of time? 



Conclusion: Fats begin burning at a temperature about degrees C. or 



degrees F. When they are permitted to continue burning, their chemical composition 
is changed, and they burn, char and blacken. 

(Note that there is some degree of difference according to the type of fat as to the 
tmperature at which melting and burning occur.) 

When fats smoke and burn, they give off very unpleasant, choking odors. This gas 
given off is acrolein, with a paralyzing effect upon the muscles of the throat and eyes, hence 
burning fat causes coughing and tears. 



131 



TWENTY-THIRD LESSON. 

Fats as Fuel Food 

Fats are found in both vegetable and animal foods, and may be in either a liquid 
or solid state as, oil, or tallow. All fats, whether of vegetable or animal origin, are com- 
posed of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen, and are capable of being completely burned, fur- 
nishing fuel. 

This seems an appropriate place for us to pause long enough to discuss the Fuel 
Value of Food and the fuel requirements of the body. 

A fat is a more efficient fuel than a carbohydrate, because the fat contains more 
carbon and hydrogen (fuels) by weight than do carbohydrates. Carbohydrates contain more 
oxygen, e. g., a typical carbohydrate is cane sugar C 12 H 22 11 , containing 
12 molecules of carbon, 
22 molecules of hydrogen, and 
11 molecules of oxygen. 
A typical fat is stearin, C 57 H 110 C e , the little solid white particles of fat, seen first 
when a melted fat begins to harden, and stearin contains : 
57 molecules of carbon, 
110 molecules of hydrogen, 
6 molecules of oxygen. 
Showing that the proportion of carbon and hydrogen are very much greater in fats than is 
carbohydrates. Therefore, they give more heat when burned. The oxygen for the burning 
is taken from the air. 

Heat furnished by any fuel in burning is measured in heat units called "calories," 
and when the fuel is burned within our bodies it gives off about the same amount of calories 
as when burned out of the body. A modern physics text book will give this definition for a 
calorie: "A calorie is the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of 1 gram of 
water 1 degree Centigrade." 

However, the term calorie has various applications. The above definition is that 
applied to what students of food problems call the "lesser calorie." When we speak of 
food values in terms of calories we usually speak of the "greater calorie," meaning the amount 
of heat required to raise the temperature of 1000 grams* of water 1 degree Centigrade. 
*Note — 1000 gr. of water = 1000 cu. centimeters = 1 litre = nearly 1 qt. of water. 

Now by many experiments it has been proved that proteins, fats and carbohydrates 
have definite heat value and that 

1 gram of protein yields 4.1 calories, when burned, 
1 gram of carbohydrate yields 4.1 calories, when burned, 
1 gram of fat yields 9.2 calories, when burned, 
showing that fats have 2 1 /! times the fuel value of protein or carbyhydrate. It woidd seem 
from this that it might be wisest for us to take all our necessary body fuel in the form of fat 
and indeed some animals and even the Esquimaux race of people do so to a very large de- 
gree — but it is discovered that we who live in temperate or semi-tropical climates, and in a 
degree of civilization, seem unable to digest large quantities of fat, but obtain our required 
body temperature much more comfortably and satisfactorily upon a mixed diet containing 
ell the fuel foods in a good balance — that is, with about 1 calorie of heat furnished by protein 
to about 6 furnished by fat and carbohydrate mixed. Thus we eat bread and butter, bread 
and cheese, potatoes and meat, cream and cereal, etc. 

The working man weighing 150 lbs. at ordinary labor, is estimated to require about 
3,000 calories of energy, furnished in food, daily. 100 grams of protein will yield about 400 
of the calories, leaving about 2,600 to be furnished by fats and carbohydrates. This is 
called the proper "nutrient ratio." 
For example: 

100 gr. of protein X 4.1 furnish 410 calories of energy 
3000 calories — 410 ealories=2590 calories. 

410 : 2590 : : 1 : ? 
2590 
= G + 



nutrient ratio 



410 

or weight of carbohydrates + 2% X weight of fat _ 

eight of protein. 

or '■' of carbohydrate + 1V± X per cent of fat , . 

— =* — z — — = — = nutrient ratio 

% of protein. 

132 



Take for a concrete example soda crackers: 

What is their nutrient ratio? That is, how near do they give a properly balanced 
diet ? 

Soda crackers contain : 

Water 5.9% 

Protein 9.8% 

Fat 9.1% 

Carbohydrate 73.1% 

Ash 2.1% 

Then : C-h + 2*4 F 

= N. E. 

P 

73.1 + 2% (9.1 73.1 + 20.4 93.5 
= _ = 9 + 

9.8 9.8 9.8 

showing the nutrient ratio ; that is, the proportion of protein to be 1 :9, rather than as 1 :6. 
Is there too much or too little protein ? 

However, if the crackers are eaten with milk, the ratio would be changed to a better 
standard. So we do eat bread and milk, or crackers and milk, often and wisely. 

Now fats, being composed entirely of fuel materials in a liquid or easily liquified 
state burn very easily, and when a fat burns in cooking, its composition is changed and it 
has lost some of the elements which the body would use easily transferring it into body fuel. 
In other words, by burning, it is rendered indigestible and because of careless handling of 
fats we have learned to say that "fried foods" are not digestible, because it is so difficult 
to handle the fat in cooking, without getting it too hot. 

Before we are able to understand some of the things which we are about to ob- 
serve in the experiments showing how fats combine with other substances it will be well for 
us to get some light on the digestion of fats and thus see why we prepare them in certain 
ways for food. 

Fat is digested, first by emulsification in the stomach, this emulsification is effected 
by the motions of the stomach, and a combination of the fat with acids or proteins in the 
stomach — the digestion is probably carried some farther in the stomach by a lipase (fat digest- 
ing enzyme there), and the digestion is continued and completed in the intestines where the 
lipases of the pancreatic juice break down the fats into glycerine and fatty acid and the 
alkaline digestive juices reform the fatty acids into soap. This material and the glycerine, 
being absorbed, by the intestinal wall and reorganized into emulsified fats and sent out into 
the lymph stream. 

The most easily digested fat is milk fat in cream, because it is already in an 
emulsified form. Infants are not able to digest other fats. All fats if first emulsified are 
much easier digested by adults. 



133 



TWENTY-FOURTH LESSON. 

Properties of Fat 

Experiment 47. — Physical combination with other materials. 
Utensils and supplies: 

Several bottles Oil (olive or cotton) Vinegar 

White bowl Water Lemon 

Egg beater Alcohol Egg yolk Egg white 

Procedure: . jj Li 

I. Place in a bottle 2 oz. of water and 2 T olive oil. Shake vigorously. Ob- 
serve color. Let stand 5 minutes. Note results. 



II. In the same manner and proportion mix olive oil or cotton oil and alcohol 
and note result. 



III. Same as above, using olive oil or cotton oil and vinegar. Result? 



TV. Same as above, using olive oil or cotton oil and lemon juice. Result? 



V. Same as above, mixing oil with egg white. Result? 



VI. Take the yolk of one egg, beat. Mix with it 2 T of lemon juice. Add at 
first in very small quantities, then later in larger quantities, olive oil, beat- 
ing thoroughly all the time — until 1 c of oil has been added. Add */2 t salt. 



134 



The opaque appearance and fairly permanent combinations are called emulsifi- 
cation. Define emulsification. 



Conclusions : 

Did you ever see Scott's Emulsion of Cod Liver Oil? Describe appearance? 



Are fats emulsified by water? 



Are fats emulsified by alcohol? 



Are fats emulsified by acid? 



Are fats emulsified by protein? 



135 



Observe in each of above combinations: 
Result upon standing 2 days. 



How permanent is emulsification ? 



"Why? 



What natural law disturbs its continuation? 



Practical application. 

Experiment 48 — Uses of emulsified fats for salad dressings. 

Wilted Lettuce 

Prepare lettuce for salad.* Arrange the lettuce in a dish, slice onions or radishes 
or cucumbers or all of these in with the lettuce. Into the fat left after frying bacon or 
ham, pour % c of dilute vinegar. Stir for a few minutes, forming an emulsion, and pour 
this over the vegetables. 

*Note — All vegetables and fruits to be eaten without cooking must be washed thoroughly in water 
which is perfectly safe for drinking purposes, and rinsed in water of the same degree for safety. 

Summer Salads 

Utensils and supplies: 

Large dish for vegetables Lettuce and any other summer vegetables: 
Forks onions, cucumbers, tomatoes — 

Plates use one or all of them. 

Procedure : 

(a) French dressing. 
Recipe : 

2 T vinegar % t salt 

6 T oil Ys t pepper 

A few grains of red pepper 

Mix together salt, pepper and oil; add acids slowly and beat until emulusion is 
formed. 

fb) Have all vegetables clean and cold, having removed water and seeds from 
centers of tomatoes or cucumbers. Tear — do not cut — the lettuce. Dice onions, cucumbers, 
tomatoes; place all in large bowl; gradually aid the French dressing, tossing the mixture 
lightly with forks until the dressing is mixed throughout. 

Serve on plate with salted crackers. 

136 



III. Fruit Salads 



Utensils and supplies: 
Dishes for fruit 
Olive oil 

Acid (vinegar or lemon juice) 
Salt, pepper, mustard 

Procedure : 

(a) Mayonnaise: 



Any fruits, fresh, or canned 

Nuts 

Lettuce 

Egg 



I. 

Mix 

together 

thoroughly* 

using egg 

beater. 



1 egg yolk (well 
beaten) 
Y2 t mustard 
y 2 t salt 

Few grains red pepper 
2 T acid (vinegar 

or lemon or both) 



II. 

Add 



1 c olive oil 
Add oil 1 T at 
first. Then 
more and more, 
beating rapidly 
until each addition 
of oil is completely 
emulsified. 



(This method will take about 5 minutes of time and is much more satisfactory than 
the method given in most recipe books.) 

The mayonnaise may be thinned with whipped cream, before using, if desired, 
(b) Salad: 

Place a lettuce leaf on each plate for garnish. If canned fruit is used, drain it free 
from juice. 

(1) Dice all fruit, mix it lightly in a dish, heap it on the lettuce and pile on it a 
tablespoonful of the mayonnaise, garnish with nut meats or cherries, 

or 

(2) If fruit is sliced, like pineapples, oranges, fresh apples*, it may be piled in a 
pyramid, then the yellow mayonnaise heaped on top and the whole topped with a cherry or 
nut meat. 



•Note — Apples and bananas blacken on standing, 
lemon or orange juice or vinegar while standing. 



This may be avoided by moistening them with 



137 



TWENTY-FIFTH LESSON. 
Properties of Fats (Continued) 

Experiment 49. — Saponification of Fats — Fats combined with alkalis. 

Utensils and supplies: 

Stew kettle Fat 

Tablespoon Sal soda 

Flame Salt 

Cup 

Procedure : 

Take 2 oz. (4 T) of fat. Place it in kettle and add to it 1 c of water in which has 
been dissolved 1 T of sal soda. Boil for 1 hour. Remove from stove. Cool, and add % c 
of water in which has been dissolved 1 T of table salt. Let it stand until the new combina- 
tion of fatty acid and alkali rises to the top. 

Results: Lift this off. Wash the hands with a piece of it. What is it? Observe 
the oily liquid under this and not mixed with the water. This is glycerine. 



Conclusions: Fats combine with alkalis forming what substances? 



Practical Application. 

Experiment 50. — Making Soft Soap. 

Use any fats of the household which have become rancid, weigh and follow directions 
found on a 1 lb. can of lye (Potassium Carbonate) purchased at the drug or grocery store. 

Hard soap is made by use of soda in place of potassium. 

138 



Conclusions: 

Fats are fuels, and burn when sufficiently heated. 

Fats are not soluble in water. 

Fats are soluble in alcohol. 

Fats may be emulsified by agitation with acids, and with proteins. 

Emulsification is a physical characteristic and consists of mixing the fat particles 
throughout the material which supports these particles in suspension. The condition is not 
permanent, but in time may be overcome by gravity. Emulsification occurs in digestion, in 
the stomach. 

Fats may be saponified by means of alkalis. This is a chemical combination, where- 
by the alkali changes the fat to new substances — soap and glycerine. This occurs in in- 
testinal digestion. 



139 



TWENTY-SIXTH LESSON. 
Cooking in Deep Fats. 

The best fats to use for deep fat frying are olive oil, lard, beef drippings, and cot- 
tolene. 

A combination of two-thirds lard and one-third beef drippings gives excellent re- 
sults. 

Cottolene does not darken quite so readily as beef drippings. 

Necessary Utensils: 

1. An iron frying kettle of good depth so that fat will not easily bubble over. The 
kettle should never be filled within more than two inches of the top. 

2. A frying basket to hold articles when placed in kettle so that they will not be 
broken up. 

3. Unglazed absorbent paper for draining. 

Temperature For Frying. 

The fat must be hot enough to form a crust quickly on the articles being fried so 
that food will not absorb fat. This temperature must be varied for different substances. 
From 350 degrees F. to 450 degrees F., or 180 degrees C. to 230 degrees C. — the lower tem- 
peratures for foods that are uncooked and must be cooked to the center, such as doughnuts — 
the higher temperatures for forming brown crust and heating through, such as croquettes. 
A faint blue smoke over the top of fat will indicate the highest temperature which it should 
be allowed to reach. As long as there is bubbling, sputtering or boiling, the fat contains 
some water and will not reach a high temperature. It must be heated till the water passes 
off. 

Test the fat by dropping in a little of the food material that is to be fried or by 
dropping in a small cube of bread. 

The articles to be fried should be warm and dry, and only a few should be put in 
fat at a time. 

When fat is at the proper temperature, slip a few of the articles to be fried care- 
fully into kettle. Stir or turn if necessary and cook until a golden brown, and until the 
mixture has had time to cook through to the center; then remove from fat. 

When cooked drain articles a few minutes directly over the kettle, then lay on un- 
glazed paper, so that fat which adheres to the articles will be absorbed by paper. Reheat 
fat before adding another quantity of food to be fried. 

Time Table For Frying. 

Breaded Chops 5 to 8 min. 

Croquettes 1 min. 

Doughnuts 3 to 5 min. 

Fish Balls 1 min. 

Fritters 3 to 5 min. 

Oysters 1 min. 

Potatoes, raw 4 to 8 min. 

Many kinds of food may be fried in tl ' . Each time after using, clarify 

the fat, chill, and keep for future use. Use new tatoes first, then flour mixtures 

and crumbed articles and fish foods last. When own so dark that it is no longer 

good for frying, it can be utilized in making soap. 

Many foods do not become covered with a crust when subjected to high heat in deep 
fat. Such foods must have some egg added tc the mixture or be coatd with a substance 
which forms a crust quickly. For this reason many foods are dipped into bread crumbs 
and egg. 

1. Dip articles into ground bread crumbs, flour or corn meal, covering entirely 
with the crumbs. 

2. Dip into egg which has been slightly beaten with 1 T water, or olher liquid. 

3. Dip again into seasoned bread crumbs. 

140 



To Clarify Fat. 

Add a few slices of raw potato to fat when it is rather cool and heat it gradually 
until potato is well browned. Strain through muslin or a double thickness of cheese cloth, 
placed in a wire strainer. Cool quickly and then cover. 

To Render or Fry Out Fat. 

Remove tough outside skin and lean parts from beef fat and then cut into small 
pieces. Put fat into a sauce pan, add Ys the measure of cold water, and cook uncovered so 
that steam may pass off. "When water has all evaporated, simmer to let fat try out slowly 
from membrane. When fat has ceased sputtering and scraps of tissue are all shriveled strain 
through a cloth and cool. 

To Wash Frying Kettle. 

Wipe kettle out with newspaper. Fill nearly full of water and add 1 T washing 
soda. Put in all utensils that have been used in the fat. Heat until water boils. Wash 
them from this suds, and then as other dishes. 

Practical Applications. 
Experiment 51. —Foods Fried in Deep Fat. 

I. — Fried Oysters. 

Large oysters Dried bread crumbs (sifted and seasoned) 

Egg Deep fat for frying 

Select large oysters, remove pieces of shell, wash and wipe them dry, season with 
salt and pepper, roll in bread crumbs, dip in egg (beaten with 1 T water or oyster juice), 
and again in crumbs. Fry in deep fat 1 minute, drain, garnish and serve. 

II.— Fish Balls. 

1 c salt codfish 1 egg 

2y 2 c potatoes i/ 2 T butter 

Vs t pepper 

Wash the fish in cold water and pull into small pieces. Wash and pare the po- 
tatoes and cut in pieces. Cook the fish and potatoes together in boiling water until the 
potatoes are soft, then drain and shake over the fire until dry; mash with a wire potato 
masher, add the beaten egg, butter and pepper, and salt if needed and beat until light. 
Take up the mixture in a spoon, mold slightlly with knife and slip into deep, hot fat. Fry 
until brown, about 1 minute. Drain on unglazed paper. 

Mixture for codfish balls may be served hot, without frying, or turned into a but- 
tered baking dish and browned in the oven and served as a baked dish. 

III. — Saratoga Chips. 

Wash and pare potatoes. Slice thinly with vegetable cutter into a bowl of cold 
water. Let stand 2 hours. Take from water,dry between towels. Fry in deep fat till light 
brown. Keep potatoes in motion while frying. Drain on absorbent paper. Sprinkle with 
salt. 

IV. — French Fried Potatoes. 

Wash and pare small potatoes. Cut in eights lengthwise. Soak 1 hour in cold 
water.. Take from water, dry between towels. Fry in deep fat till golden brown. Drain 
on absorbent paper. Sprinkle with salt. 

For further use see recipes which call for frying in deep fat under various topics 
elsewhere. 



141 



142 



143 



144 



TWENTY-SEVENTH LESSON. 
Fats Combined With Flour For Pastry. 

There are three classes of pastry: plain, flaky and puff paste. 

Plain and flaky paste are used for pies and tarts; puff paste is used for meat pies 
and patties. 

Plain paste is prepared by chopping the fat into the flour; flaky, and puff paste 
are prepared by adding most of the fat in layers of dough, and combining them by rolling 
and folding, thus incorporating much air during the process, which, when heated, expands, 
making the paste flaky. 

General Rules For Plain Paste- 
Use flour, cold fat, and ice water in making pastry. Add salt to give flavor, and 
baking powder if additional lightness or acheaper paste is desired. 

Butter, butterine, lard, cottolene, or beef drippings may be used for shortening. But- 
ter gives the best flavor, lard makes most tender crust. Beef drippings and suet are espe- 
cially good for meat pies. The per cent of fat may be reduced when baking powder is used. 

Have all materials very cold. 

Sift all dry ingredients together. Chop in cold fat with a fork, the hands warm 
it. Do not touch with the hands. Do not chop fat very fine if a flaky crust is desired. 

Add ice water very carefully, a few drops at a time, and only enough to hold 
the dough together. 

Toss on a floured board with a knife so that entire surface is slightly floured. 
Handle only the quantity that is to be used for one crust at a time. 

Roll lightly and quickly, and on one side only, so as not to work in more flour. 

Roll thin and as nearly the shape of the pan as possible. Fold and lift the paste 
carefully to the pie plate, and trim one-fourth inch larger than plate. 

Work scraps together lightly, keep tliem covered with a moist cloth, and very cold; 
they may be used another day. All pastry rolls more easily after chilling. 

Left over pastry may be used for cheese straws and tarts. 

Plain paste for a one-crust pie may be baked on the outside of the pie tin and care- 
fully pierced with a fork before baking, so that bubbles will not spoil the shape. 

Meat and oyster pies, and pies made with fresh fruit are best made without an under 
crc' They should be baked in an earthen or granite dish. 

upper crust should always be perforated to allow the escape of steam. 

■e upper crust is brushed with beaten egg before baking, it will brown better, 
ai 'liny appearance. 

e pie is a juicy fruit pie, it is well to brush the under crust with beaten white 
of t^ ivent the juices making the crust soft. 

The lower crust should always be moistened around the edge with cold water, and 
the upper crust placed over it, and the two pressed tightly together. 

Pastry should be cooked in a hot oven 15 to 30 minutes. After pastry has been in 
the oven a few minutes, the heat should be decreased. 



145 



Experiment 52. — Recipes for Pastries: 

Use % the recipe for small 4-ineh school pan. 

I. — Plain Paste. 

1 c flour i/4 t salt 

ice water 1-3 c fat 

Enough for one crust.. Double for two crust pie. 

Sift flour and salt together. Chop in cold fat with a knife. Add enough cold wa 
ter to make a stiff dough. Roll out lightly and quickly. 

If 1 t of baking powder be used the fat may be reduced to *4 c. Sift the baking 
powder with the flour and salt. 

II.— Flaky Paste. 

3 c flour l 1 /! 1 c butter or butter and lard 
% t salt 1 c ice water 

Sift, flour and salt, add y s of the butter, and chop it in well. Add enough of the 
water to make a stiff dough, and knead it until smooth. 

Divide remaining fat in three portions. Roll paste half inch thick. Spread one 
portion of the butter on it, dredge lightly with flour, fold in three layers, roll out, fold and 
roll again. Spread on another portion of butter, fold and continue until all the butter is 
used, rolling and folding six times in all. Bake in a hot oven. 

Filling For Apple Pie. 

4 or 5 sour apples 1 T lemon juice 
1-3 c sugar 1 T butter 

t grated nutmeg or cinnamon 1 T water (if apples are not juicy) 

Wipe, quarter, pare and core apples and cut into eighths. 

Line a pie tin with plain paste, fill with the apples, heaping them in the center. 

Sprinkle them with sugar, nutmeg and lemon juice, and dot with bits of butter, 
add water, cover with an upper crust, and bake in a hot oven until apples are soft, and 
crust is brown. 

Filling For Lemon Pie. 

% c flour 2 egg yolks 

iy 2 c sugar l 1 /. lemon, juice and grated rind 

iy 2 c boiling water 2 T butter 

4 T powdered sugar 2 egg whites 

Mix the sugar and flour together. Add the boiling water slowly. Cook 20 minutes, 
stirring frequently. Separate eggs. Beat yolks of eggs until light. Add the hot cooking 
mixture to the egg, stirring constantly, add butter, and lemon juice and rind and cook until 
the egg thickens, over hot water. When mixture is cool, turn into a baked crust. Cover 
with a meringue (made by beating white very light and adding powdered sugar slowly), 
and bake until a delicate brown. 

For puff paste see any book of recipes for fancy cooking. 



146 



147 



148 



TWENTY-EIGHTH LESSON. 

Carbohydrates. 

References : 

Human Foods, by Harry Snyder: 

Chapter II — Changes in composition of Poods during Cooking and Preparation. 

Chapter V — Sugar, Molasses, Syrup, Honey and Confections. 
Farmers' Bulletins: 

503— Comb Honey. 

535 — Sugar and Its Value as Food. 

Carbohydrates are represented in food by the starches and sugars and cellulose. 
They are composed of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen. Carbon and hydrogen are fuels. Oxy- 
gen is necessary for all combustion, so in these foods are elements for producing heat and 
energy, the hydrogen and carbon to be burned, giving off heat as they combine with oxygen 
of the carbohydrates and of the air. 



Classification : 



Carbohydrates — 



1. Monosaccharids 
or 
Simple sugar 
C 6 H 12 6 



2. Disaccharids 
or 
Double sugars 



Polysaccharids 

or 
Complex sugars 
(C 6 H 10 O 5 )n 



Glucose=dextrose;=grape- 
sugar=body sugar 

Fructose=levulose= fruit- 
sugar 

Sucrose=cane sugar. Rep- 
resented by all commercial 
sugars for general use — as 
cane and beet sugars and 
maple sugar. 

Lactose=niilk sugar. Found 
only in milk ; sold as a by- 
product at cheese factories. 

Maltose=malt sugar. Found 
in sprouting grain and the 
second product found in 
the digestion of starch. 

Cellulose=any plant fibre. 

Starch : found in some 
fruits, in many vegetables 
and roots. 

Dextrine=the first product 
produced by heating or 
digesting starch. 

Glycogen = ' ' body starch, ' ' 
produced in the liver as 
the storage form of sugar 
and sent in that form out 
to the muscles through the 
circulation. 



Experiment 53. — Showing Form and Composition of Carbohydrates. 



Utensils and supplies: 
Sauce dishes 
Test tubes 
Test tube holders 
Flame 



Iodine 

Fehling's solution 

Vinegar 

All form of carbohydrates obtainable 



149 



Procedure: 

1. Place in small dishes on a tray or table samples of as many of carbohydrates 

as are readily obtainable : 

Glucose crystallized 

Glucose or corn syrup 

Raisins showing sugar gathered on outside 

Cane sugar 

Beet sugar 

Maple sugar 

Rock candy or 

Crystals from syrup 

Milk sugar (may be purchased at drug stores) 

Starch 

Laundry 

Corn 
Cellulose 

Paper 

Cotton batting 

Cotton cloth 

Linen cloth 

A piece of corn stalk 

A piece of corn cob 

Splinters of wood or toothpick 

Rubber 

2. Separate each piece into three parts: (a) (b) (c) 

(a) Test with iodine for starch. 

(b) Place in test tube and test with Fehling's solution for sugar. (If it does 
not give the simple sugar test, add a few drops of vinegar or small quan- 
tity of cream of tartar and heat again). 

(c) Place the remaining piece in a test tube and heat slowly. Note: 

(1) The moisture on the sides of the test tube. 

(Water=Hydrogen and oxygen.) 

(2) The heavy, bluish white smoke which is given off. Place a 
lighted match in the mouth of the tube, note that near the mouth 
of the tube the "smoke" takes fire and burns with a blue flame. 
(This is the hydrogen burning in combination with oxygen from 
the air). 

(3) At last the smoke stops. A black charred substance remains in 
the tube. This is the carbon, and it may be heated either in the 
tube or taken out and placed on the stove or evaporatoing dish, 
and heat continued until it glows bright red and is finally entirely 
consumed. Carbon in combining with oxygen gives a red glow. 

(4) Note that all of each carbohydrate has been consumed by heat. 
In other words, it burns — is a fuel. Now, any of these materials 
which are digestible, i. e., which can be dissolved in the body by 
the digestive juices and changed to glucose are burned within the 
body when they have been digested and come in contact with 
oxidizing enzymes in the body cells, and this combustion gives us 
warmth and energy for our body tasks. 



150 



Classify the materials as to whether they burned and whether they contained 
starch or sugar. 



List of materials that burned. List showing starch- 



List showing sugar. 



Conclusions : 

(1) Do all carbohydrates burn? 

(2) Do all carbohydrates contain starch? 

(3) Do all carbohydrates contain sugar? 

(4) Do some carbohydrates contain neither starch nor sugar? What are these? 



151 



TWENTY-NINTH LESSON. 

Sugar. 

Experiment 54. — Forms of Sugar and Effect of Heat. 

[_ • I. — Forms of Sugar. 

Place in separate dishes, grouped on the table, all the types of sweetening materials 
you can easily obtain. Taste them. Classify them as to form and rank them as to sweet- 
ness, numbering the sweetest 1, the next sweet 2, and if several are the same as to this qual- 
ity, give them the same number. 



Liquid. 



Powder. 



Crystal. 



Rank in sweetness. 




II. — Effect of Heat Upon Sugar. 



Utensils and supplies: 
Frying pan 
Measuring cup 
Tablespoon 
Thermometer 
Flame 



Plates 

Granite kettle 

Sugar 

Cream of Tartar 

Glucose 



Take 4 T of granulated sugar. Place it in a small frying pan over heat. Stir con- 
stantly until melted, being careful not to scorch (or burn) the sugar before it is melted. 

Take 1 t out onto a cool plate. (It should be melted, and clear, and get hard when 
it cools on the plate). This is called "barley sugar." Continue to stir until the melted 
sugar becomes a light golden brown in color. Do not burn it. 

Take out 1 t and place it on the plate. This is called "caramel." A.dd to the re- 
c of boiling water. 

What happens! 



mainder % 



Can you think why? 



152 



Stir over the flame until the caramel is dissolved and the liquid boils up rich. 
What is this material ? 



What use do we make of it? 



II. — Temperature of Sugar Solutions. 



Take 1 c of sugar in a small stew kettle, add to it Vi e of water. Let it dissolve and 
place it over the fire. Take the following temperatures and remove alt sample to a cool 
plate, at each stage of the process as follows: 



Condition of 
solution. 


Temperature 
°F | °C 


Consistency of 
cooled material. 


Suggest a use for the Material. 


Ca) As soon as 
boiling point is evi- 
dent. 











fb) When a soft 
ball will form in cold 
water. 








fc) When the sy- 
rup will "hair" when 
dropped from the 
end of the spoon. 










fd) When the 
sample will "crack" 
in cold water. 










(e) When the 
color changes to a 
slisrht brown "cara- 
mel." 











Why does the temperature change? 



153 



Crystallization in Sugar Solutions. 

(a) Take y 2 c sugar in small kettle. Add % c water. Dissolve. Heat. Cook to 
soft ball stage (best use thermometer). Set the kettle in cool water. Cool until the hand 
can bear the temperature when placed on the kettle. 

Mix and fold with spatula or spoon until the mixture becomes creamy and stiff 
enough to work in the hands. Work it with hands until pliable, moist and smooth. Observe 
the grain. 

Take about % t of this, dissolve it in 5 c. c. of water in a test tube. 

Test with Feb ling's solution for simple sugar. 

(b) Repeat (a), adding ^4 t of cream tartar when the cooking begins. 

(c) Repeat (a), adding 2 T of glucose when the cooking begins. Compare the 
products. Test all for simple sugar. 



Results 














Experiment. 


Water. 


Sugar. 


Acid. 


Glucose. 


Grain 


Simple sugar test. 


(a) 


%o 


y 2 c 










(b) 


%o 


y 2 c 


Wtt 








(c) 


%« 


%'e 




2T 







Conclusions : 

What effect does the addition of acid have upon the grain? 



What effect does the addition of glucose have upon the grain? 



sugar ? 



What effect does the addition of either acid or glucose have upon the test for simple 



What do you conclude concerning the effect of simple sugar upon the tendency to 
crystallization ? 



154 



"Weigh your Fondant. Compute cost. 



"What effect does the acid have upon the flavor of a syrup? 



"Would you like to make your syrups, adding acid to prevent crystallization? 



Does glucose seem to be a good method of preventing crystallization? 



155 



THIRTIETH LESSON. 
Practical Applications. 
Experiment 55. —Uses for Caramel and Fondant. 

I.— Nut Brittle. . , 

Utensils and supplies: 

Frying pan % c sugar 

Plate % c nuts 

Table spoon 
Measuring cup 
Flame 

Place in small frying pan */2 e of sugar. Stir constantly until melted and smooth 
and of caramel color. Pour it over *4 c of chopped nut meats or shelled peanuts on a but- 
tered plate. Cool. Break into small pieces. 

"Weigh. Compute cost. Compare with market cost. 



II. — Make Your Fondants Up Into Creams. 

(a) Creams from fondant. 

After the fondant has stood 24 hours (placed in a dish with a damp cloth laid over 
it) to "ripen," work it again in the hands (asyou would work putty) and mold it out into 
small pieces, called creams. Place on each piece a half of a walnut, or roll the ball in chopped 
nut meats or cocoanut. 

(b) Mints from fondant. 

Melt the fondant in top of double boiler or bowl over tea kettle. Add 5 drops of 
peppermint essence. Take 1 t at a time dropping it in a round, flat cookie-shaped mint on 
a buttered or oiled paper. If you have green spearmint growing in the garden, the green 
leaves cut into fine bits and stirred into the melted fondant give a more delicious flavor and 
bits of green color throughout, making them very attractive. 

Weigh. Compute cost of (a) and (b). Compare with market price. 

156 



157 



III. — Making of Syrup. 



Recipe : 
(a) 



1 c of "Brown" 
or 
"C" sugar 



14 c of sugar (browned to 

a caramel) 
1 c of granulated sugar 
*/2 c hot water 
Cook to 257° F, or until it shows syrupy bubbles. Place it in pt. can, lid on loosely, 
and set aside for 1 week. 

(b) Repeat (a), adding 1 t of cream tartar. 

(c) Repeat (a), adding 14 c of corn syrup or glucose. 
Compare at end of a week as to flavor and crystallization. 

Compute cost. Compare the good with a commercial product as to cost and flavor. 



Results : 










Experiment. 


Acid. 


Glucose. 


Flavor. 


Crystals. 


(a) 










(b) 










(c) 











168 



159 



160 










** °*' 1? X 






v-. 



% 












a. " 

p 












% 

^i, ^& ^, A 

fc X ' 









X 















- 



In 



^? ■*> 









' 






. 



A 






A O .0 



X. 









'o^ 









«<» 



o 






"*$? 



£"1 






S-, ^ 















,0* 










X V* 


































" 























o 





























































































































































































m is 










M 
























